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{
    "title": "Virus",
    "original_title": "Virus",
    "pageid": "19167679",
    "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus",
    "_content": "A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1892 article describing a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898, more than 9,000 of the millions of virus species have been described in detail. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a subspeciality of microbiology.\nWhen infected, a host cell is often forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus. When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent viral particles, or virions, consisting of (i) the genetic material, i.e., long molecules of DNA or RNA that encode the structure of the proteins by which the virus acts; (ii) a protein coat, the capsid, which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases (iii) an outside envelope of lipids. The shapes of these virus particles range from simple helical and icosahedral forms to more complex structures. Most virus species have virions too small to be seen with an optical microscope and are one-hundredth the size of most bacteria.\nThe origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids\u2014pieces of DNA that can move between cells\u2014while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity in a way analogous to sexual reproduction. Viruses are considered by some biologists to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through natural selection, although they lack the key characteristics, such as cell structure, that are generally considered necessary criteria for defining life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\" and as replicators.Viruses spread in many ways. One transmission pathway is through disease-bearing organisms known as vectors: for example, viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; and viruses in animals can be carried by blood-sucking insects. Many viruses, including influenza viruses, SARS-CoV-2, chickenpox, smallpox, and measles, spread in the air by coughing and sneezing. Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal\u2013oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water. The infectious dose of norovirus required to produce infection in humans is fewer than 100 particles. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood. The variety of host cells that a virus can infect is called its host range. This can be narrow, meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species, or broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many.Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines, which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. Some viruses, including those that cause HIV/AIDS, HPV infection, and viral hepatitis, evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. Several classes of antiviral drugs have been developed.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe word is from the Latin neuter v\u012brus referring to poison and other noxious liquids, from the same Indo-European base as Sanskrit vi\u1e63a, Avestan v\u012b\u0161a, and ancient Greek \u1f30\u03cc\u03c2 (all meaning 'poison'), first attested in English in 1398 in John Trevisa's translation of Bartholomeus Anglicus's De Proprietatibus Rerum. Virulent, from Latin virulentus ('poisonous'), dates to c. 1400. A meaning of 'agent that causes infectious disease' is first recorded in 1728, long before the discovery of viruses by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. The English plural is viruses (sometimes also  vira),  whereas the Latin word is a mass noun, which has no classically attested plural (v\u012bra is used in Neo-Latin). The adjective viral dates to 1948. The term virion (plural virions), which dates from 1959, is also used to refer to a single viral particle that is released from the cell and is capable of infecting other cells of the same type.\n\n\n== Origins ==\n\nViruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved. The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils, so molecular techniques are used to investigate how they arose. In addition, viral genetic material occasionally integrates into the germline of the host organisms, by which they can be passed on vertically to the offspring of the host for many generations. This provides an invaluable source of information for paleovirologists to trace back ancient viruses that have existed up to millions of years ago. There are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses:\nRegressive hypothesis\nViruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells. Over time, genes not required by their parasitism were lost. The bacteria rickettsia and chlamydia are living cells that, like viruses, can reproduce only inside host cells. They lend support to this hypothesis, as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell. This is also called the 'degeneracy hypothesis', or 'reduction hypothesis'.\nCellular origin hypothesis\nSome viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that \"escaped\" from the genes of a larger organism. The escaped DNA could have come from plasmids (pieces of naked DNA that can move between cells) or transposons (molecules of DNA that replicate and move around to different positions within the genes of the cell). Once called jumping genes, transposons are examples of mobile genetic elements and could be the origin of some viruses. They were discovered in maize by Barbara McClintock in 1950. This is sometimes called the 'vagrancy hypothesis', or the 'escape hypothesis'.\nCo-evolution hypothesis\nThis is also called the 'virus-first hypothesis' and proposes that viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time that cells first appeared on Earth and would have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years. Viroids are molecules of RNA that are not classified as viruses because they lack a protein coat. They have characteristics that are common to several viruses and are often called subviral agents. Viroids are important pathogens of plants. They do not code for proteins but interact with the host cell and use the host machinery for their replication. The hepatitis delta virus of humans has an RNA genome similar to viroids but has a protein coat derived from hepatitis B virus and cannot produce one of its own. It is, therefore, a defective virus. Although hepatitis delta virus genome may replicate independently once inside a host cell, it requires the help of hepatitis B virus to provide a protein coat so that it can be transmitted to new cells. In similar manner, the sputnik virophage is dependent on mimivirus, which infects the protozoan Acanthamoeba castellanii. These viruses, which are dependent on the presence of other virus species in the host cell, are called 'satellites' and may represent evolutionary intermediates of viroids and viruses.In the past, there were problems with all of these hypotheses: the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus-first hypothesis contravened the definition of viruses in that they require host cells. Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the three domains. This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re-evaluate these three classical hypotheses.The evidence for an ancestral world of RNA cells and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences are giving a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different viruses and may help identify the ancestors of modern viruses. To date, such analyses have not proved which of these hypotheses is correct. It seems unlikely that all currently known viruses have a common ancestor, and viruses have probably arisen numerous times in the past by one or more mechanisms.\n\n\n== Microbiology ==\n\n\n=== Life properties ===\nScientific opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life or organic structures that interact with living organisms. They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\", since they resemble organisms in that they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. Although they have genes, they do not have a cellular structure, which is often seen as the basic unit of life. Viruses do not have their own metabolism and require a host cell to make new products. They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell\u2014although some bacteria such as rickettsia and chlamydia are considered living organisms despite the same limitation. Accepted forms of life use cell division to reproduce, whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. They differ from autonomous growth of crystals as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.\n\n\n=== Structure ===\n\nViruses display a wide diversity of sizes and shapes, called 'morphologies'. In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria and more than a thousand bacteriophage viruses would fit inside an Escherichia coli bacterium's cell. Many viruses that have been studied are spherical and have a diameter between 20 and 300 nanometres. Some filoviruses, which are filaments, have a total length of up to 1400 nm; their diameters are only about 80 nm. Most viruses cannot be seen with an optical microscope, so scanning and transmission electron microscopes are used to visualise them. To increase the contrast between viruses and the background, electron-dense \"stains\" are used. These are solutions of salts of heavy metals, such as tungsten, that scatter the electrons from regions covered with the stain. When virions are coated with stain (positive staining), fine detail is obscured. Negative staining overcomes this problem by staining the background only.A complete virus particle, known as a virion, consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid. These are formed from protein subunits called capsomeres. Viruses can have a lipid \"envelope\" derived from the host cell membrane. The capsid is made from proteins encoded by the viral genome and its shape serves as the basis for morphological distinction. Virally-coded protein subunits will self-assemble to form a capsid, in general requiring the presence of the virus genome. Complex viruses code for proteins that assist in the construction of their capsid. Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as nucleoproteins, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid. The capsid and entire virus structure can be mechanically (physically) probed through atomic force microscopy. In general, there are five main morphological virus types:\n\nHelical\nThese viruses are composed of a single type of capsomere stacked around a central axis to form a helical structure, which may have a central cavity, or tube. This arrangement results in virions which can be short and highly rigid rods, or long and very flexible filaments. The genetic material (typically single-stranded RNA, but single-stranded DNA in some cases) is bound into the protein helix by interactions between the negatively charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein. Overall, the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it, and the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of capsomeres. The well-studied tobacco mosaic virus and inovirus are examples of helical viruses.Icosahedral\nMost animal viruses are icosahedral or near-spherical with chiral icosahedral symmetry. A regular icosahedron is the optimum way of forming a closed shell from identical subunits. The minimum number of capsomeres required for each triangular face is 3, which gives 60 for the icosahedron. Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than 60 capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry. To achieve this, the capsomeres at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomeres and are called pentons. Capsomeres on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called hexons. Hexons are in essence flat and pentons, which form the 12 vertices, are curved. The same protein may act as the subunit of both the pentamers and hexamers or they may be composed of different proteins.Prolate\nThis is an icosahedron elongated along the fivefold axis and is a common arrangement of the heads of bacteriophages. This structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end.Enveloped\nSome species of virus envelop themselves in a modified form of one of the cell membranes, either the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell or internal membranes such as a nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum, thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a viral envelope. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome; the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present originate entirely from the host. Influenza virus, HIV (which causes AIDS), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (which causes COVID-19) use this strategy. Most enveloped viruses are dependent on the envelope for their infectivity.Complex\nThese viruses possess a capsid that is neither purely helical nor purely icosahedral, and that may possess extra structures such as protein tails or a complex outer wall. Some bacteriophages, such as Enterobacteria phage T4, have a complex structure consisting of an icosahedral head bound to a helical tail, which may have a hexagonal base plate with protruding protein tail fibres. This tail structure acts like a molecular syringe, attaching to the bacterial host and then injecting the viral genome into the cell.The poxviruses are large, complex viruses that have an unusual morphology. The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disc structure known as a nucleoid. The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function. The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface. The whole virion is slightly pleomorphic, ranging from ovoid to brick-shaped.\n\n\n==== Giant viruses ====\n\nMimivirus is one of the largest characterised viruses, with a capsid diameter of 400 nm. Protein filaments measuring 100 nm project from the surface. The capsid appears hexagonal under an electron microscope, therefore the capsid is probably icosahedral. In 2011, researchers discovered the largest then known virus in samples of water collected from the ocean floor off the coast of Las Cruces, Chile. Provisionally named Megavirus chilensis, it can be seen with a basic optical microscope. In 2013, the Pandoravirus genus was discovered in Chile and Australia, and has genomes about twice as large as Megavirus and Mimivirus. All giant viruses have dsDNA genomes and they are classified into several families: Mimiviridae, Pithoviridae, Pandoraviridae, Phycodnaviridae, and the Mollivirus genus.Some viruses that infect Archaea have complex structures unrelated to any other form of virus, with a wide variety of unusual shapes, ranging from spindle-shaped structures to viruses that resemble hooked rods, teardrops or even bottles. Other archaeal viruses resemble the tailed bacteriophages, and can have multiple tail structures.\n\n\n=== Genome ===\nAn enormous variety of genomic structures can be seen among viral species; as a group, they contain more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses, although fewer than 7,000 types have been described in detail. As of January 2021, the NCBI Virus genome database has more than 193,000 complete genome sequences, but there are doubtlessly many more to be discovered.A virus has either a DNA or an RNA genome and is called a DNA virus or an RNA virus, respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA genomes.Viral genomes are circular, as in the polyomaviruses, or linear, as in the adenoviruses. The type of nucleic acid is irrelevant to the shape of the genome. Among RNA viruses and certain DNA viruses, the genome is often divided up into separate parts, in which case it is called segmented. For RNA viruses, each segment often codes for only one protein and they are usually found together in one capsid. All segments are not required to be in the same virion for the virus to be infectious, as demonstrated by brome mosaic virus and several other plant viruses.A viral genome, irrespective of nucleic acid type, is almost always either single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds). Single-stranded genomes consist of an unpaired nucleic acid, analogous to one-half of a ladder split down the middle. Double-stranded genomes consist of two complementary paired nucleic acids, analogous to a ladder. The virus particles of some virus families, such as those belonging to the Hepadnaviridae, contain a genome that is partially double-stranded and partially single-stranded.For most viruses with RNA genomes and some with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes, the single strands are said to be either positive-sense (called the 'plus-strand') or negative-sense (called the 'minus-strand'), depending on if they are complementary to the viral messenger RNA (mRNA). Positive-sense viral RNA is in the same sense as viral mRNA and thus at least a part of it can be immediately translated by the host cell. Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase before translation. DNA nomenclature for viruses with genomic ssDNA is similar to RNA nomenclature, in that positive-strand viral ssDNA is identical in sequence to the viral mRNA and is thus a coding strand, while negative-sense viral ssDNA is complementary to the viral mRNA and is thus a template strand. Several types of ssDNA and ssRNA viruses have genomes that are ambisense in that transcription can occur off both strands in a double-stranded replicative intermediate. Examples include geminiviruses, which are ssDNA plant viruses and arenaviruses, which are ssRNA viruses of animals.\n\n\n==== Genome size ====\nGenome size varies greatly between species. The smallest\u2014the ssDNA circoviruses, family Circoviridae\u2014code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases; the largest\u2014the pandoraviruses\u2014have genome sizes of around two megabases which code for about 2500 proteins. Virus genes rarely have introns and often are arranged in the genome so that they overlap.In general, RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses because of a higher error-rate when replicating, and have a maximum upper size limit. Beyond this, errors when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive. To compensate, RNA viruses often have segmented genomes\u2014the genome is split into smaller molecules\u2014thus reducing the chance that an error in a single-component genome will incapacitate the entire genome. In contrast, DNA viruses generally have larger genomes because of the high fidelity of their replication enzymes. Single-strand DNA viruses are an exception to this rule, as mutation rates for these genomes can approach the extreme of the ssRNA virus case.\n\n\n=== Genetic mutation and recombination ===\n\nViruses undergo genetic change by several mechanisms. These include a process called antigenic drift where individual bases in the DNA or RNA mutate to other bases. Most of these point mutations are \"silent\"\u2014they do not change the protein that the gene encodes\u2014but others can confer evolutionary advantages such as resistance to antiviral drugs. Antigenic shift occurs when there is a major change in the genome of the virus. This can be a result of recombination or reassortment. When this happens with influenza viruses, pandemics might result. RNA viruses often exist as quasispecies or swarms of viruses of the same species but with slightly different genome nucleoside sequences. Such quasispecies are a prime target for natural selection.Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses (or offspring) that have unique characteristics. This is called reassortment or 'viral sex'.Genetic recombination is a process by which a strand of DNA (or RNA) is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA (or RNA)  molecule. This can occur when viruses infect cells simultaneously and studies of viral evolution have shown that recombination has been rampant in the species studied. Recombination is common to both RNA and DNA viruses.Coronaviruses have a single-strand positive-sense RNA genome.  Replication of the genome is catalyzed by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.  The mechanism of recombination used by coronaviruses likely involves template switching by the polymerase during genome replication.  This process appears to be an adaptation for coping with genome damage.\n\n\n=== Replication cycle ===\n\nViral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell. When infected, the host cell is forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus.Their life cycle differs greatly between species, but there are six basic stages in their life cycle:Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range and type of host cell of a virus. For example, HIV infects a limited range of human leucocytes. This is because its surface protein, gp120, specifically interacts with the CD4 molecule\u2014a chemokine receptor\u2014which is most commonly found on the surface of CD4+ T-Cells. This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo changes that result in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter.Penetration or viral entry follows attachment: Virions enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion. The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall. Nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called plasmodesmata. Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell. Given that bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size, some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall, while the viral capsid remains outside.Uncoating is a process in which the viral capsid is removed: This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end-result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid.Replication of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome. Replication involves the synthesis of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) from \"early\" genes (with exceptions for positive-sense RNA viruses), viral protein synthesis, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression. This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: \"late\" gene expression is, in general, of structural or virion proteins.Assembly \u2013 Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell.Release \u2013 Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present: this is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host's chromosome. The viral genome is then known as a \"provirus\" or, in the case of bacteriophages a \"prophage\". Whenever the host divides, the viral genome is also replicated. The viral genome is mostly silent within the host. At some point, the provirus or prophage may give rise to the active virus, which may lyse the host cells. Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) typically are released from the host cell by budding. During this process, the virus acquires its envelope, which is a modified piece of the host's plasma or other, internal membrane.\n\n\n=== Genome replication ===\nThe genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.\n\nDNA viruses\nThe genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell's nucleus. If the cell has the appropriate receptor on its surface, these viruses enter the cell either by direct fusion with the cell membrane (e.g., herpesviruses) or\u2014more usually\u2014by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Most DNA viruses are entirely dependent on the host cell's DNA and RNA synthesising machinery and RNA processing machinery. Viruses with larger genomes may encode much of this machinery themselves. In eukaryotes, the viral genome must cross the cell's nuclear membrane to access this machinery, while in bacteria it need only enter the cell.RNA viruses\nReplication of RNA viruses usually takes place in the cytoplasm. RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication. The polarity (whether or not it can be used directly by ribosomes to make proteins) of single-stranded RNA viruses largely determines the replicative mechanism; the other major criterion is whether the genetic material is single-stranded or double-stranded. All RNA viruses use their own RNA replicase enzymes to create copies of their genomes.Reverse transcribing viruses\nReverse transcribing viruses have ssRNA (Retroviridae, Metaviridae, Pseudoviridae) or dsDNA (Caulimoviridae, and Hepadnaviridae) in their particles. Reverse transcribing viruses with RNA genomes (retroviruses) use a DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas those with DNA genomes (pararetroviruses) use an RNA intermediate during genome replication. Both types use a reverse transcriptase, or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase enzyme, to carry out the nucleic acid conversion. Retroviruses integrate the DNA produced by reverse transcription into the host genome as a provirus as a part of the replication process; pararetroviruses do not, although integrated genome copies of especially plant pararetroviruses can give rise to infectious virus. They are susceptible to antiviral drugs that inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme, e.g. zidovudine and lamivudine. An example of the first type is HIV, which is a retrovirus. Examples of the second type are the Hepadnaviridae, which includes Hepatitis B virus.\n\n\n=== Cytopathic effects on the host cell ===\nThe range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive. These are called 'cytopathic effects'. Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell's surface membrane and apoptosis. Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activities because of suppression by virus-specific proteins, not all of which are components of the virus particle. The distinction between cytopathic and harmless is gradual. Some viruses, such as Epstein\u2013Barr virus, can cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy, while others, such as papillomaviruses, are established causes of cancer.\n\n\n=== Dormant and latent infections ===\nSome viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.\n\n\n=== Host range ===\nViruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all the others put together. They infect all types of cellular life including animals, plants, bacteria and fungi. Different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of hosts and many are species-specific. Some, such as smallpox virus for example, can infect only one species\u2014in this case humans, and are said to have a narrow host range. Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range. The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans. The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single strain of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called phage typing. The complete set of viruses in an organism or habitat is called the virome; for example, all human viruses constitute the human virome.\n\n\n=== Novel viruses ===\nA novel virus is one that has not previously been recorded. It can be a virus that is isolated from its natural reservoir or isolated as the result of spread to an animal or human host where the virus had not been identified before. It can be an emergent virus, one that represents a new virus, but it can also be an extant virus that has not been previously identified. The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus that caused the pandemic of covid  disease is an example of a novel virus.\n\n\n== Classification ==\n\nClassification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962, Andr\u00e9 Lwoff, Robert Horne, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the Linnaean hierarchical system. This system based classification on phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes. In 1966, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the Baltimore classification system has come to be used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy. Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species. Additionally, some species within the same genus are grouped into a genogroup.\n\n\n=== ICTV classification ===\nThe ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied. As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, 233 families, 168 subfamilies, 2,606 genera, 84 subgenera, and 10,434 species of viruses have been defined by the ICTV.The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use.\nRealm (-viria)\nSubrealm (-vira)\nKingdom (-virae)\nSubkingdom (-virites)\nPhylum (-viricota)\nSubphylum (-viricotina)\nClass (-viricetes)\nSubclass (-viricetidae)\nOrder (-virales)\nSuborder (-virineae)\nFamily (-viridae)\nSubfamily (-virinae)\nGenus (-virus)\nSubgenus (-virus)\nSpecies\n\n\n=== Baltimore classification ===\n\nThe Nobel Prize-winning biologist David Baltimore devised the Baltimore classification system. The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification.The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of mRNA production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use reverse transcriptase (RT). In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either sense (+) or antisense (\u2212). This classification places viruses into seven groups:\n\nI: dsDNA viruses (e.g. Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, Poxviruses)\nII: ssDNA viruses (+ strand or \"sense\") DNA (e.g. Parvoviruses)\nIII: dsRNA viruses (e.g. Reoviruses)\nIV:(+)ssRNA viruses (+ strand or sense) RNA (e.g. Coronaviruses, Picornaviruses, Togaviruses)\nV: (\u2212)ssRNA viruses (\u2212 strand or antisense) RNA (e.g. Orthomyxoviruses, Rhabdoviruses)\nVI: ssRNA-RT viruses (+ strand or sense) RNA with DNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. Retroviruses)\nVII: dsDNA-RT viruses DNA with RNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. Hepadnaviruses)\n\n\n== Role in human disease ==\n\nExamples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, influenza, chickenpox, and cold sores. Many serious diseases such as rabies, Ebola virus disease, AIDS (HIV), avian influenza, and SARS are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of virulence. Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome. There is controversy over whether the bornavirus, previously thought to cause neurological diseases in horses, could be responsible for psychiatric illnesses in humans.Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which depends largely on the viral species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In multicellular organisms, if enough cells die, the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although viruses cause disruption of healthy homeostasis, resulting in disease, they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the herpes simplex virus, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses, including Epstein\u2013Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and varicella zoster virus, which causes chickenpox and shingles. Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus. These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens, such as Yersinia pestis.Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.\n\n\n=== Epidemiology ===\nViral epidemiology is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and control of virus infections in humans. Transmission of viruses can be vertical, which means from mother to child, or horizontal, which means from person to person. Examples of vertical transmission include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is born already infected with the virus. Another, more rare, example is the varicella zoster virus, which, although causing relatively mild infections in children and adults, can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby.Horizontal transmission is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations. Horizontal transmission can occur when body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity, by exchange of saliva or when contaminated food or water is ingested. It can also occur when aerosols containing viruses are inhaled or by insect vectors such as when infected mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host. Most types of viruses are restricted to just one or two of these mechanisms and they are referred to as \"respiratory viruses\" or \"enteric viruses\" and so forth. The rate or speed of transmission of viral infections depends on factors that include population density, the number of susceptible individuals, (i.e., those not immune), the quality of healthcare and the weather.Epidemiology is used to break the chain of infection in populations during outbreaks of viral diseases. Control measures are used that are based on knowledge of how the virus is transmitted. It is important to find the source, or sources, of the outbreak and to identify the virus. Once the virus has been identified, the chain of transmission can sometimes be broken by vaccines. When vaccines are not available, sanitation and disinfection can be effective. Often, infected people are isolated from the rest of the community, and those that have been exposed to the virus are placed in quarantine. To control the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle in Britain in 2001, thousands of cattle were slaughtered. Most viral infections of humans and other animals have incubation periods during which the infection causes no signs or symptoms. Incubation periods for viral diseases range from a few days to weeks, but are known for most infections. Somewhat overlapping, but mainly following the incubation period, there is a period of communicability\u2014a time when an infected individual or animal is contagious and can infect another person or animal. This, too, is known for many viral infections, and knowledge of the length of both periods is important in the control of outbreaks. When outbreaks cause an unusually high proportion of cases in a population, community, or region, they are called epidemics. If outbreaks spread worldwide, they are called pandemics.\n\n\n=== Epidemics and pandemics ===\n\nA pandemic is a worldwide epidemic. The 1918 flu pandemic, which lasted until 1919, was a category 5 influenza pandemic caused by an unusually severe and deadly influenza A virus. The victims were often healthy young adults, in contrast to most influenza outbreaks, which predominantly affect juvenile, elderly, or otherwise-weakened patients. Older estimates say it killed 40\u201350 million people, while more recent research suggests that it may have killed as many as 100 million people, or 5% of the world's population in 1918.Although viral pandemics are rare events, HIV\u2014which evolved from viruses found in monkeys and chimpanzees\u2014has been pandemic since at least the 1980s. During the 20th century there were four pandemics caused by influenza virus and those that occurred in 1918, 1957 and 1968 were severe. Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the 20th century; it is now a pandemic, with an estimated 37.9 million people now living with the disease worldwide. There were about 770,000 deaths from AIDS in 2018. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognised on 5 June 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. In 2007 there were 2.7 million new HIV infections and 2 million HIV-related deaths.\n\nSeveral highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the Filoviridae. Filoviruses are filament-like viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever, and include ebolaviruses and marburgviruses. Marburg virus, first discovered in 1967, attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in Angola. Ebola virus disease has also caused intermittent outbreaks with high mortality rates since 1976 when it was first identified. The worst and most recent one is the 2013\u20132016 West Africa epidemic.Except for smallpox, most pandemics are caused by newly evolved viruses. These \"emergent\" viruses are usually mutants of less harmful viruses that have circulated previously either in humans or other animals.Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)  are caused by new types of coronaviruses. Other coronaviruses are known to cause mild infections in humans, so the virulence and rapid spread of SARS infections\u2014that by July 2003 had caused around 8,000 cases and 800 deaths\u2014was unexpected and most countries were not prepared.A related coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2), thought to have originated in bats, emerged in Wuhan, China in November 2019 and spread rapidly around the world.  Infections with the virus caused the COVID-19 pandemic that started in 2020. Unprecedented restrictions in peacetime were placed on international travel, and curfews were imposed in several major cities worldwide in response to the pandemic.\n\n\n=== Cancer ===\n\nViruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species. Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons (or animals). Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families, including both RNA and DNA viruses, and so there is no single type of \"oncovirus\" (an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses). The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity and mutations in the host. Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, Epstein\u2013Barr virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human T-lymphotropic virus. The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus (Merkel cell polyomavirus) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma.\nHepatitis viruses can develop into a chronic viral infection that leads to liver cancer. Infection by human T-lymphotropic virus can lead to tropical spastic paraparesis and adult T-cell leukaemia. Human papillomaviruses are an established cause of cancers of cervix, skin, anus, and penis. Within the Herpesviridae, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus causes Kaposi's sarcoma and body-cavity lymphoma, and Epstein\u2013Barr virus causes Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, B lymphoproliferative disorder, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Merkel cell polyomavirus closely related to SV40 and mouse polyomaviruses that have been used as animal models for cancer viruses for over 50 years.\n\n\n=== Host defence mechanisms ===\n\nThe body's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system. This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non-specific manner. This means that the cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a generic way, but, unlike the adaptive immune system, it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host.RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses. Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule or molecules, which immediately bind to a protein complex called a dicer that cuts the RNA into smaller pieces. A biochemical pathway\u2014the RISC complex\u2014is activated, which ensures cell survival by degrading the viral mRNA. Rotaviruses have evolved to avoid this defence mechanism by not uncoating fully inside the cell, and releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid. Their genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.When the adaptive immune system of a vertebrate encounters a virus, it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and often render it non-infectious. This is called humoral immunity. Two types of antibodies are important. The first, called IgM, is highly effective at neutralising viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called IgG, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past. IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out.Antibodies can continue to be an effective defence mechanism even after viruses have managed to gain entry to the host cell. A protein that is in cells, called TRIM21, can attach to the antibodies on the surface of the virus particle. This primes the subsequent destruction of the virus by the enzymes of the cell's proteosome system.\n\nA second defence of vertebrates against viruses is called cell-mediated immunity and involves immune cells known as T cells. The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by 'killer T' cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. Cells such as the macrophage are specialists at this antigen presentation. The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response in this way. HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. This is known as \"escape mutation\" as the viral epitopes escape recognition by the host immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration, blockade of antigen presentation, cytokine resistance, evasion of natural killer cell activities, escape from apoptosis, and antigenic shift. Other viruses, called 'neurotropic viruses', are disseminated by neural spread where the immune system may be unable to reach them due to immune privilege.\n\n\n=== Prevention and treatment ===\nBecause viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general. The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are vaccinations to provide immunity to infection, and antiviral drugs that selectively interfere with viral replication.\n\n\n==== Vaccines ====\n\nVaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Smallpox infections have been eradicated. Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans, and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines can consist of live-attenuated or killed viruses, viral proteins (antigens), or RNA. Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as immunocompromised), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. Subunit vaccines are safe for immunocompromised patients because they cannot cause the disease. The yellow fever virus vaccine, a live-attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.\n\n\n==== Antiviral drugs ====\n\nAntiviral drugs are often nucleoside analogues (fake DNA building-blocks), which viruses mistakenly incorporate into their genomes during replication. The life-cycle of the virus is then halted because the newly synthesised DNA is inactive. This is because these analogues lack the hydroxyl groups, which, along with phosphorus atoms, link together to form the strong \"backbone\" of the DNA molecule. This is called DNA chain termination. Examples of nucleoside analogues are aciclovir for Herpes simplex virus infections and lamivudine for HIV and hepatitis B virus infections. Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs.\nOther antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle. HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the HIV-1 protease for it to become fully infectious. There is a large class of drugs called protease inhibitors that inactivate this enzyme. There are around thirteen classes of antiviral drugs each targeting different viruses or stages of viral replication.Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80% of people infected, the disease is chronic, and without treatment, they are infected for the remainder of their lives. There are effective treatments that use direct-acting antivirals. The treatment of chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus has also been developed by using similar strategies that include lamivudine and other anti-viral drugs.\n\n\n== Infection in other species ==\nViruses infect all cellular life and, although viruses occur universally, each cellular species has its own specific range that often infects only that species. Some viruses, called satellites, can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus.\n\n\n=== Animal viruses ===\n\nViruses are important pathogens of livestock. Diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease and bluetongue are caused by viruses. Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, are susceptible to serious viral infections. Canine parvovirus is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups. Like all invertebrates, the honey bee is susceptible to many viral infections. Most viruses co-exist harmlessly in their host and cause no signs or symptoms of disease.\n\n\n=== Plant viruses ===\n\nThere are many types of plant viruses, but often they cause only a loss of yield, and it is not economically viable to try to control them. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms, known as vectors. These are usually insects, but some fungi, nematode worms, single-celled organisms, and parasitic plants are vectors. When control of plant virus infections is considered economical, for perennial fruits, for example, efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds. Plant viruses cannot infect humans and other animals because they can reproduce only in living plant cells.Originally from Peru, the potato has become a staple crop worldwide. The potato virus Y causes disease in potatoes and related species including tomatoes and peppers. In the 1980s, this virus acquired economical importance when it proved difficult to control in seed potato crops. Transmitted by aphids, this virus can reduce crop yields by up to 80 per cent, causing significant losses to potato yields.Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so-called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots. This stops the infection from spreading. RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants. When they are infected, plants often produce natural disinfectants that kill viruses, such as salicylic acid, nitric oxide, and reactive oxygen molecules.Plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have applications in both biotechnology and nanotechnology. The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems. Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology.\n\n\n=== Bacterial viruses ===\n\nBacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments\u2014there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria, reaching levels of 250,000,000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater. These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to surface receptor molecules and then entering the cell. Within a short amount of time, in some cases, just minutes, bacterial polymerase starts translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell, helper proteins, which help assembly of new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis. Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane, and, in the case of the T4 phage, in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages could be released.The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells. Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block the virus's replication through a form of RNA interference. This genetic system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection.\n\n\n=== Archaeal viruses ===\n\nSome viruses replicate within archaea: these are DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes. These viruses have been studied in most detail in the thermophilic archaea, particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales. Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequences within archaean genomes that are related to the genes of the viruses. Most archaea have CRISPR\u2013Cas systems as an adaptive defence against viruses. These enable archaea to retain sections of viral DNA, which are then used to target and eliminate subsequent infections by the virus using a process similar to RNA interference.\n\n\n== Role in aquatic ecosystems ==\n\nViruses are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments. There are about ten million of them in a teaspoon of seawater. Most of these viruses are bacteriophages infecting heterotrophic bacteria and cyanophages infecting cyanobacteria and they are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems.\nBacteriophages are harmless to plants and animals, and are essential to the regulation of marine and freshwater ecosystems  are important mortality agents of phytoplankton, the base of the foodchain in aquatic environments. They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are one of the most important mechanisms of recycling carbon and nutrient cycling in marine environments. The organic molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth, in a process known as the viral shunt. In particular, lysis of bacteria by viruses has been shown to enhance nitrogen cycling and stimulate phytoplankton growth.  Viral activity may also affect the biological pump, the process whereby carbon is sequestered in the deep ocean.Microorganisms constitute more than 90% of the biomass in the sea. It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20% of this biomass each day and that there are 10 to 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are also major agents responsible for the destruction of phytoplankton including harmful algal blooms,\nThe number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms.In January 2018, scientists reported that 800 million viruses, mainly of marine origin, are deposited daily from the Earth's atmosphere onto every square meter of the planet's surface, as the result of a global atmospheric stream of viruses, circulating above the weather system but below the altitude of usual airline travel, distributing viruses around the planet.Like any organism, marine mammals are susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus. Many other viruses, including caliciviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses and parvoviruses, circulate in marine mammal populations.In December 2022, scientists reported the first observation of virovory via an experiment on pond water containing chlorovirus, which commonly infects green algae in freshwater environments. When all other microbial food sources were removed from the water, the ciliate Halteria was observed to have increased in number due to the active consumption of chlorovirus as a food source instead of its typical bacterivore diet.\n\n\n== Role in evolution ==\n\nViruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species, which increases genetic diversity and drives evolution. It is thought that viruses played a central role in early evolution, before the diversification of the last universal common ancestor into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth.\n\n\n== Applications ==\n\n\n=== Life sciences and medicine ===\n\nViruses are important to the study of molecular and cell biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells. The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology. For example, viruses have been useful in the study of genetics and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of molecular genetics, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA processing, translation, protein transport, and immunology.\nGeneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Similarly, virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in gene therapy. Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria.\nThe expression of heterologous proteins by viruses is the basis of several manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of various proteins such as vaccine antigens and antibodies. Industrial processes have been recently developed using viral vectors and several pharmaceutical proteins are currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.\n\n\n==== Virotherapy ====\n\nVirotherapy involves the use of genetically modified viruses to treat diseases. Viruses have been modified by scientists to reproduce in cancer cells and destroy them but not infect healthy cells. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), for example, is a modified herpes simplex virus that has had a gene, which is required for viruses to replicate in healthy cells, deleted and replaced with a human gene (GM-CSF) that stimulates immunity. When this virus infects cancer cells, it destroys them and in doing so the presence the GM-CSF gene attracts dendritic cells from the surrounding tissues of the body. The dendritic cells process the dead cancer cells and present components of them to other cells of the immune system. Having completed successful clinical trials, the virus gained approval for the treatment of melanoma in late 2015. Viruses that have been reprogrammed to kill cancer cells are called oncolytic viruses.\n\n\n=== Materials science and nanotechnology ===\nCurrent trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses. From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles.\nTheir surface carries specific tools that enable them to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface are precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine.Because of their size, shape, and well-defined chemical structures, viruses have been used as templates for organising materials on the nanoscale. Recent examples include work at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., using Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) particles to amplify signals in DNA microarray based sensors. In this application, the virus particles separate the fluorescent dyes used for signalling to prevent the formation of non-fluorescent dimers that act as quenchers. Another example is the use of CPMV as a nanoscale breadboard for molecular electronics.\n\n\n=== Synthetic viruses ===\nMany viruses can be synthesised de novo (\"from scratch\").  The first synthetic virus was created in 2002. Although somewhat of a misconception, it is not the actual virus that is synthesised, but rather its DNA genome (in case of a DNA virus), or a cDNA copy of its genome (in case of RNA viruses). For many virus families the naked synthetic DNA or RNA (once enzymatically converted back from the synthetic cDNA) is infectious when introduced into a cell. That is, they contain all the necessary information to produce new viruses. This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies. The ability to synthesise viruses has far-reaching consequences, since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct, as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and permissive cells are available. As of June 2021, the full-length genome sequences of 11,464 different viruses, including smallpox, are publicly available in an online database maintained by the National Institutes of Health.\n\n\n=== Weapons ===\n\nThe ability of viruses to cause devastating epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponised for biological warfare. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous 1918 influenza virus in a laboratory.\nThe smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. There are only two centres in the world authorised by the WHO to keep stocks of smallpox virus: the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Russia and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States. It may be used as a weapon, as the vaccine for smallpox sometimes had severe side-effects, it is no longer used routinely in any country. Thus, much of the modern human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox and would be vulnerable to the virus.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n Media related to Viruses at Wikimedia Commons\n Data related to Virus at Wikispecies\nViralZone A Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics resource for all viral families, providing general molecular and epidemiological information",
    "_revision_id": 1141060147,
    "_parent_id": 1140993817,
    "_summary": "A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1892 article describing a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898, more than 9,000 of the millions of virus species have been described in detail. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a subspeciality of microbiology.\nWhen infected, a host cell is often forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus. When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent viral particles, or virions, consisting of (i) the genetic material, i.e., long molecules of DNA or RNA that encode the structure of the proteins by which the virus acts; (ii) a protein coat, the capsid, which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases (iii) an outside envelope of lipids. The shapes of these virus particles range from simple helical and icosahedral forms to more complex structures. Most virus species have virions too small to be seen with an optical microscope and are one-hundredth the size of most bacteria.\nThe origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids\u2014pieces of DNA that can move between cells\u2014while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity in a way analogous to sexual reproduction. Viruses are considered by some biologists to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through natural selection, although they lack the key characteristics, such as cell structure, that are generally considered necessary criteria for defining life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\" and as replicators.Viruses spread in many ways. One transmission pathway is through disease-bearing organisms known as vectors: for example, viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; and viruses in animals can be carried by blood-sucking insects. Many viruses, including influenza viruses, SARS-CoV-2, chickenpox, smallpox, and measles, spread in the air by coughing and sneezing. Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal\u2013oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water. The infectious dose of norovirus required to produce infection in humans is fewer than 100 particles. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood. The variety of host cells that a virus can infect is called its host range. This can be narrow, meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species, or broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many.Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines, which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. Some viruses, including those that cause HIV/AIDS, HPV infection, and viral hepatitis, evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. Several classes of antiviral drugs have been developed.",
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        "http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/23/301523.pdf",
        "http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=viral",
        "http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virion",
        "http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virulent",
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        "Measles",
        "Megavirus",
        "Melanoma",
        "Merkel cell carcinoma",
        "Merkel cell polyomavirus",
        "Messenger RNA",
        "Metabolism",
        "Metaviridae",
        "Microbiology",
        "Microorganism",
        "Middle East respiratory syndrome",
        "Mimiviridae",
        "Mimivirus",
        "Mitochondrion",
        "Mitosome",
        "Mobile genetic elements",
        "Mobilome",
        "Model lipid bilayer",
        "Molecular biology",
        "Molecular genetics",
        "Molecular self-assembly",
        "Molecule",
        "Mollivirus",
        "Monodnaviria",
        "Morphology (biology)",
        "Multicellular organism",
        "Multiple sclerosis",
        "Mumps",
        "Mutate",
        "Mya Breitbart",
        "Mycovirus",
        "Naldaviricetes",
        "Nanobacterium",
        "Nanobe",
        "Nanometres",
        "Nanotechnology",
        "Nasopharyngeal carcinoma",
        "National Center for Biotechnology Information",
        "National Geographic Society",
        "National Institutes of Health",
        "Natural killer cell",
        "Natural reservoir",
        "Natural selection",
        "Naval Research Laboratory",
        "Negative-sense",
        "Negative-sense ssRNA virus",
        "Negative staining",
        "Nematode",
        "Neo-Latin",
        "Neurology",
        "Neurotropic virus",
        "Nitric oxide",
        "Non-cellular life",
        "Non-coding DNA",
        "Norovirus",
        "Nucleic acid",
        "Nucleoid",
        "Nucleoprotein",
        "Nucleoside analogues",
        "OCLC (identifier)",
        "Oncolytic virus",
        "Oncovirus",
        "Optical microscope",
        "Order (biology)",
        "Organism",
        "Origin of life",
        "Origin of replication",
        "Orthomyxovirus",
        "Ovaliviridae",
        "Overlapping gene",
        "PMC (identifier)",
        "PMID (identifier)",
        "Paleovirology",
        "Pandemic",
        "Pandemic Severity Index",
        "Pandemics",
        "Pandoraviridae",
        "Pandoravirus",
        "Papillomavirus",
        "Parakaryon myojinensis",
        "Parasitism",
        "Parvovirus",
        "Pathogen",
        "Pathogen transmission",
        "Penis",
        "Permissive",
        "Peter Palese",
        "Phage therapy",
        "Phage typing",
        "Phagemid",
        "Phenotype mixing",
        "Phocine distemper virus",
        "Phosphorus",
        "Phycodnaviridae",
        "Phylum",
        "Phylum (biology)",
        "Phytoplankton",
        "Picornavirus",
        "Plant",
        "Plant sap",
        "Plant virus",
        "Plasmaviridae",
        "Plasmid",
        "Plasmodesma",
        "Plastid",
        "Pleomorphism (microbiology)",
        "Plural form of words ending in -us",
        "Point mutations",
        "Poison",
        "Polio",
        "Polydnaviridae",
        "Polymerase",
        "Polyomavirus",
        "Portogloboviridae",
        "Positive-sense",
        "Positive-sense ssRNA virus",
        "Pospiviroidae",
        "Potato virus Y",
        "Poxviridae",
        "Poxvirus",
        "Primary effusion lymphoma",
        "Prion",
        "Prokaryota",
        "Prophage",
        "Protease inhibitors",
        "Protein",
        "Protein biosynthesis",
        "Proteinoid",
        "Proteosome",
        "Protist",
        "Protista",
        "Protocell",
        "Protozoa",
        "Provirus",
        "Pseudoviridae",
        "Psychiatry",
        "Quarantine",
        "Quasispecies",
        "Quenching (fluorescence)",
        "R-factor",
        "RNA",
        "RNA-dependent RNA polymerase",
        "RNA-induced silencing complex",
        "RNA interference",
        "RNA processing",
        "RNA replicase",
        "RNA vaccine",
        "RNA virus",
        "RNA world",
        "Rabies",
        "Reactive oxygen species",
        "Realm (virology)",
        "Reassortment",
        "Receptor (biochemistry)",
        "Regular icosahedron",
        "Reovirus",
        "Repeated sequence (DNA)",
        "Repetitive DNA",
        "Replicon (genetics)",
        "Restriction endonucleases",
        "Retron",
        "Retroposon",
        "Retrotransposon",
        "Retroviridae",
        "Retrovirus",
        "Retrozyme",
        "Reverse transcribing viruses",
        "Reverse transcriptase",
        "Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene",
        "Reverse transcription",
        "Rhabdovirus",
        "Rhizidiovirus",
        "Riboviria",
        "Ribozyme",
        "Ribozyviria",
        "Rickettsia",
        "Robert Horne (virologist)",
        "Rotavirus",
        "Rubella",
        "S2CID (identifier)",
        "SARS",
        "SARS-CoV-2",
        "SV40",
        "Salicylic acid",
        "Salt (chemistry)",
        "Sanskrit",
        "Satellite (biology)",
        "Secondary chromosome",
        "Self-organisation",
        "Self-replication",
        "Sense (molecular biology)",
        "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2",
        "Sexual reproduction",
        "Sexually transmitted infection",
        "Shingles",
        "Smallpox",
        "Smallpox virus",
        "Social history of viruses",
        "Spanish flu",
        "Species",
        "Spiegelman's Monster",
        "Spiraviridae",
        "Sputnik virophage",
        "SsDNA virus",
        "SsRNA-RT virus",
        "State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR",
        "Strain (biology)",
        "Sub-Saharan Africa",
        "Subviral agents",
        "Sulfolobales",
        "Sulphobes",
        "Synthetic virology",
        "T-Cells",
        "T4 phage",
        "TRIM21",
        "T cells",
        "Talimogene laherparepvec",
        "Tandem repeat",
        "Telomerase reverse transcriptase",
        "Thaspiviridae",
        "The New York Times",
        "Theory of virulence",
        "Thermophile",
        "Thermoproteales",
        "Three-domain system",
        "Ti plasmid",
        "Tobacco mosaic virus",
        "Togavirus",
        "Tolecusatellitidae",
        "Transcription (genetics)",
        "Translation (genetics)",
        "Transmission electron microscopy",
        "Transposable element",
        "Transposons",
        "Transpoviron",
        "Trophosome",
        "Tropical spastic paraparesis",
        "Tungsten",
        "Vaccination",
        "Vaccine",
        "Varicella zoster virus",
        "Varidnaviria",
        "Vector (epidemiology)",
        "Vector (molecular biology)",
        "Vertebrate",
        "Vertical transfer",
        "Vertical transmission",
        "Veterinary virology",
        "Viral disease",
        "Viral entry",
        "Viral envelope",
        "Viral evolution",
        "Viral hemorrhagic fever",
        "Viral hepatitis",
        "Viral life cycle",
        "Viral load",
        "Viral metagenomics",
        "Viral protein",
        "Viral replication",
        "Viral shedding",
        "Viral shunt",
        "Viral species",
        "Viral vector",
        "Viroid",
        "Viroids",
        "Virology",
        "Virome",
        "Virophage",
        "Viroplasm",
        "Virosphere",
        "Virotherapy",
        "Virovore",
        "Virulence",
        "Virulence factor",
        "Virus-like particle",
        "Virus (disambiguation)",
        "Virus classification",
        "Virus latency",
        "Virus quantification",
        "Virusoid",
        "Wikidata",
        "Wikispecies",
        "World Health Organization",
        "World Register of Marine Species",
        "Wuhan",
        "Yellow fever vaccine",
        "Yersinia pestis",
        "Zidovudine",
        "Zoonosis"
    ],
    "_sections": [],
    "_html": "<div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Infectious agent that replicates in cells</div>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1033289096\">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about the type of pathogen. For the type of malware, see <a href=\"/wiki/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\">Computer virus</a>. For other uses, see <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig\" title=\"Virus (disambiguation)\">Virus (disambiguation)</a>.</div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n</p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see <a href=\"/wiki/Introduction_to_viruses\" title=\"Introduction to viruses\">Introduction to viruses</a>.</div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n\n</p>\n<table class=\"infobox biota\" style=\"text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)\">Virus\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"&quot;Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2&quot;\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/220px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/330px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/440px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"2048\" data-file-height=\"2048\" /></a>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center; font-size: 88%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\">SARS-CoV-2</a>, a member of the subfamily <i><a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirinae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Coronavirinae\">Coronavirinae</a></i>\n</td></tr>\n\n\n\n\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)\"><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">Virus classification</a> <span class=\"plainlinks\" style=\"font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Virus\" title=\"e\"><img alt=\"e\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" data-file-width=\"16\" data-file-height=\"16\" /></a></span>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>(unranked):\n</td>\n<td><b>Virus</b>\n</td></tr>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)\"><a href=\"/wiki/Realm_(virology)\" title=\"Realm (virology)\">Realms</a>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: left\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Adnaviria\" title=\"Adnaviria\">Adnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Duplodnaviria\" title=\"Duplodnaviria\">Duplodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Monodnaviria\" title=\"Monodnaviria\">Monodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Riboviria\" title=\"Riboviria\">Riboviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyviria\" title=\"Ribozyviria\">Ribozyviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Varidnaviria\" title=\"Varidnaviria\">Varidnaviria</a></i></li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n</tbody></table>\n<p>A <b>virus</b> is a <a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/submicroscopic\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:submicroscopic\">submicroscopic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Infectious_agent\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Infectious agent\">infectious agent</a> that replicates only inside the living <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_(biology)\" title=\"Cell (biology)\">cells</a> of an <a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">organism</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-NG-20200415_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NG-20200415-1\">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> Viruses infect all <a href=\"/wiki/Life_forms\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Life forms\">life forms</a>, from animals and plants to <a href=\"/wiki/Microorganism\" title=\"Microorganism\">microorganisms</a>, including <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\">bacteria</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">archaea</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16984643-2\">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-NYT-20210226_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NYT-20210226-3\">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> Since <a href=\"/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanovsky\" title=\"Dmitri Ivanovsky\">Dmitri Ivanovsky</a>'s 1892 article describing a non-bacterial <a href=\"/wiki/Pathogen\" title=\"Pathogen\">pathogen</a> infecting tobacco plants and the discovery of the <a href=\"/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Tobacco mosaic virus\">tobacco mosaic virus</a> by <a href=\"/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck\" title=\"Martinus Beijerinck\">Martinus Beijerinck</a> in 1898,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock-4\">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> more than 9,000 of the millions of <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_species\" title=\"List of virus species\">virus species</a> have been described in detail.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ictv2021_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ictv2021-5\">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384-6\">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are found in almost every <a href=\"/wiki/Ecosystem\" title=\"Ecosystem\">ecosystem</a> on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Lawrence_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lawrence-7\">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> The study of viruses is known as <a href=\"/wiki/Virology\" title=\"Virology\">virology</a>, a subspeciality of <a href=\"/wiki/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\">microbiology</a>.\n</p><p>When infected, a <a href=\"/wiki/Host_cell\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Host cell\">host cell</a> is often forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus. When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent viral particles, or <i><b>virions</b></i>, consisting of (i) the <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_material\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Genetic material\">genetic material</a>, i.e., long <a href=\"/wiki/Molecule\" title=\"Molecule\">molecules</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/DNA\" title=\"DNA\">DNA</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> that encode the structure of the proteins by which the virus acts; (ii) a <a href=\"/wiki/Protein\" title=\"Protein\">protein</a> coat, the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">capsid</a></i>, which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases (iii) an outside <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">envelope</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid\" title=\"Lipid\">lipids</a>. The shapes of these virus particles range from simple <a href=\"/wiki/Helix\" title=\"Helix\">helical</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Icosahedron\" title=\"Icosahedron\">icosahedral</a> forms to more complex structures. Most virus species have virions too small to be seen with an <a href=\"/wiki/Optical_microscope\" title=\"Optical microscope\">optical microscope</a> and are one-hundredth the size of most bacteria.\n</p><p>The origins of viruses in the <a href=\"/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Evolutionary history of life\">evolutionary history of life</a> are unclear: some may have evolved from <a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">plasmids</a>\u2014pieces of DNA that can move between cells\u2014while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of <a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer\" title=\"Horizontal gene transfer\">horizontal gene transfer</a>, which increases <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_diversity\" title=\"Genetic diversity\">genetic diversity</a> in a way analogous to <a href=\"/wiki/Sexual_reproduction\" title=\"Sexual reproduction\">sexual reproduction</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Canchaya_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Canchaya-9\">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are considered by some <a href=\"/wiki/Biologist\" title=\"Biologist\">biologists</a> to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\">natural selection</a>, although they lack the key characteristics, such as cell structure, that are generally considered necessary criteria for <a href=\"/wiki/Life#Biology\" title=\"Life\">defining life</a>. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-10\">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> and as <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_replication\" title=\"Viral replication\">replicators</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid26965225_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid26965225-11\">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Pathogen_transmission\" title=\"Pathogen transmission\">Viruses spread</a> in many ways. One transmission pathway is through disease-bearing organisms known as <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vector (epidemiology)\">vectors</a>: for example, viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on <a href=\"/wiki/Plant_sap\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Plant sap\">plant sap</a>, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Aphid\" title=\"Aphid\">aphids</a>; and viruses in animals can be carried by <a href=\"/wiki/Hematophagy\" title=\"Hematophagy\">blood-sucking</a> insects. Many viruses, including <a href=\"/wiki/Influenza\" title=\"Influenza\">influenza viruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/SARS-CoV-2\" title=\"SARS-CoV-2\">SARS-CoV-2</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chickenpox\" title=\"Chickenpox\">chickenpox</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Smallpox\" title=\"Smallpox\">smallpox</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Measles\" title=\"Measles\">measles</a>, spread <a href=\"/wiki/Airborne_transmission\" title=\"Airborne transmission\">in the air</a> by coughing and sneezing. <a href=\"/wiki/Norovirus\" title=\"Norovirus\">Norovirus</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Rotavirus\" title=\"Rotavirus\">rotavirus</a>, common causes of viral <a href=\"/wiki/Gastroenteritis\" title=\"Gastroenteritis\">gastroenteritis</a>, are transmitted by the <a href=\"/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route\" title=\"Fecal\u2013oral route\">faecal\u2013oral route</a>, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water. The <a href=\"/wiki/Infectious_dose\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Infectious dose\">infectious dose</a> of norovirus required to produce infection in humans is fewer than 100 particles.<sup id=\"cite_ref-robilotti15_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-robilotti15-12\">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/HIV\" title=\"HIV\">HIV</a> is one of several viruses <a href=\"/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection\" title=\"Sexually transmitted infection\">transmitted through sexual contact</a> and by exposure to infected blood. The variety of host cells that a virus can infect is called its <a href=\"/wiki/Host_specificity\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Host specificity\"><i>host range</i></a>. This can be narrow, meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species, or broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many.<sup id=\"cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Viral infections in animals provoke an <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_response\" title=\"Immune response\">immune response</a> that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by <a href=\"/wiki/Vaccine\" title=\"Vaccine\">vaccines</a>, which confer an <a href=\"/wiki/Immunity_(medical)\" title=\"Immunity (medical)\">artificially acquired immunity</a> to the specific viral infection. Some viruses, including those that cause <a href=\"/wiki/HIV/AIDS\" title=\"HIV/AIDS\">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection\" title=\"Human papillomavirus infection\">HPV infection</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_hepatitis\" title=\"Viral hepatitis\">viral hepatitis</a>, evade these immune responses and result in <a href=\"/wiki/Chronic_(medical)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chronic (medical)\">chronic</a> infections. Several classes of <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">antiviral drugs</a> have been developed.\n</p>\n<div id=\"toc\" class=\"toc\" role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"mw-toc-heading\"><input type=\"checkbox\" role=\"button\" id=\"toctogglecheckbox\" class=\"toctogglecheckbox\" style=\"display:none\" /><div class=\"toctitle\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><h2 id=\"mw-toc-heading\">Contents</h2><span class=\"toctogglespan\"><label class=\"toctogglelabel\" for=\"toctogglecheckbox\"></label></span></div>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-1\"><a href=\"#Etymology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Etymology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-2\"><a href=\"#Origins\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Origins</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-3\"><a href=\"#Microbiology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Microbiology</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-4\"><a href=\"#Life_properties\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Life properties</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-5\"><a href=\"#Structure\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Structure</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-6\"><a href=\"#Giant_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.2.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Giant viruses</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-7\"><a href=\"#Genome\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genome</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-8\"><a href=\"#Genome_size\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.3.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genome size</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-9\"><a href=\"#Genetic_mutation_and_recombination\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genetic mutation and recombination</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-10\"><a href=\"#Replication_cycle\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Replication cycle</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-11\"><a href=\"#Genome_replication\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genome replication</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-12\"><a href=\"#Cytopathic_effects_on_the_host_cell\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cytopathic effects on the host cell</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-13\"><a href=\"#Dormant_and_latent_infections\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Dormant and latent infections</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-14\"><a href=\"#Host_range\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Host range</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-15\"><a href=\"#Novel_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Novel viruses</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-16\"><a href=\"#Classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Classification</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-17\"><a href=\"#ICTV_classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">ICTV classification</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-18\"><a href=\"#Baltimore_classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Baltimore classification</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-19\"><a href=\"#Role_in_human_disease\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Role in human disease</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-20\"><a href=\"#Epidemiology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Epidemiology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-21\"><a href=\"#Epidemics_and_pandemics\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Epidemics and pandemics</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-22\"><a href=\"#Cancer\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cancer</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-23\"><a href=\"#Host_defence_mechanisms\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Host defence mechanisms</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-24\"><a href=\"#Prevention_and_treatment\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Prevention and treatment</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-25\"><a href=\"#Vaccines\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.5.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Vaccines</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-26\"><a href=\"#Antiviral_drugs\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.5.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Antiviral drugs</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-27\"><a href=\"#Infection_in_other_species\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Infection in other species</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-28\"><a href=\"#Animal_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Animal viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-29\"><a href=\"#Plant_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Plant viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-30\"><a href=\"#Bacterial_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bacterial viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-31\"><a href=\"#Archaeal_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Archaeal viruses</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-32\"><a href=\"#Role_in_aquatic_ecosystems\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Role in aquatic ecosystems</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-33\"><a href=\"#Role_in_evolution\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Role in evolution</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-34\"><a href=\"#Applications\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Applications</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-35\"><a href=\"#Life_sciences_and_medicine\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Life sciences and medicine</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-36\"><a href=\"#Virotherapy\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.1.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Virotherapy</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-37\"><a href=\"#Materials_science_and_nanotechnology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Materials science and nanotechnology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-38\"><a href=\"#Synthetic_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Synthetic viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-39\"><a href=\"#Weapons\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Weapons</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-40\"><a href=\"#See_also\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">See also</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-41\"><a href=\"#References\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11</span> <span class=\"toctext\">References</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-42\"><a href=\"#Notes\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Notes</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-43\"><a href=\"#Bibliography\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bibliography</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-44\"><a href=\"#External_links\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12</span> <span class=\"toctext\">External links</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Etymology\">Etymology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1\" title=\"Edit section: Etymology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Plural_form_of_words_ending_in_-us\" title=\"Plural form of words ending in -us\">Plural form of words ending in -us</a></div>\n<p>The word is from the Latin neuter <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">v\u012brus</i></span> referring to <a href=\"/wiki/Poison\" title=\"Poison\">poison</a> and other noxious liquids, from the same <a href=\"/wiki/Indo-European_languages\" title=\"Indo-European languages\">Indo-European base</a> as <a href=\"/wiki/Sanskrit\" title=\"Sanskrit\">Sanskrit</a> <span title=\"Sanskrit-language text\"><i lang=\"sa\">vi\u1e63a</i></span>, <a href=\"/wiki/Avestan\" title=\"Avestan\">Avestan</a> <span title=\"Avestan-language text\"><i lang=\"ae\">v\u012b\u0161a</i></span>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Ancient_Greek\" title=\"Ancient Greek\">ancient Greek</a> <span title=\"Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text\"><span lang=\"grc\">\u1f30\u03cc\u03c2</span></span> (all meaning 'poison'), first <a href=\"/wiki/Attested_language\" title=\"Attested language\">attested</a> in English in 1398 in <a href=\"/wiki/John_Trevisa\" title=\"John Trevisa\">John Trevisa's</a> translation of <a href=\"/wiki/Bartholomeus_Anglicus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bartholomeus Anglicus\">Bartholomeus Anglicus's</a> <i>De Proprietatibus Rerum</i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary-15\">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> <i>Virulent</i>, from Latin <i>virulentus</i> ('poisonous'), dates to c.&#160;1400.<sup id=\"cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup> A meaning of 'agent that causes infectious disease' is first recorded in 1728,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary-15\">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> long before the discovery of viruses by <a href=\"/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanovsky\" title=\"Dmitri Ivanovsky\">Dmitri Ivanovsky</a> in 1892. The English <a href=\"/wiki/Plural_form_of_words_ending_in_-us#Virus\" title=\"Plural form of words ending in -us\">plural</a> is <i>viruses</i> (sometimes also  <i>vira</i>),<sup id=\"cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup>  whereas the Latin word is a <a href=\"/wiki/Mass_noun\" title=\"Mass noun\">mass noun</a>, which has no <a href=\"/wiki/Classical_Latin\" title=\"Classical Latin\">classically</a> attested plural (<i>v\u012bra</i> is used in <a href=\"/wiki/Neo-Latin\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Neo-Latin\">Neo-Latin</a><sup id=\"cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup>). The adjective <i>viral</i> dates to 1948.<sup id=\"cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> The term <i>virion</i> (plural <i>virions</i>), which dates from 1959,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary2_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary2-21\">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> is also used to refer to a single viral particle that is released from the cell and is capable of infecting other cells of the same type.<sup id=\"cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Origins\">Origins</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2\" title=\"Edit section: Origins\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_evolution\" title=\"Viral evolution\">Viral evolution</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16494962_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16494962-23\">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup> The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils, so <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_biology\" title=\"Molecular biology\">molecular techniques</a> are used to investigate how they arose.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20660197-24\">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> In addition, viral genetic material occasionally integrates into the <a href=\"/wiki/Germline\" title=\"Germline\">germline</a> of the host organisms, by which they can be passed on <a href=\"/wiki/Vertical_transfer\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vertical transfer\">vertically</a> to the offspring of the host for many generations. This provides an invaluable source of information for <a href=\"/wiki/Paleovirology\" title=\"Paleovirology\">paleovirologists</a> to trace back ancient viruses that have existed up to millions of years ago. There are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses:<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31142823_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31142823-25\">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<dl><dt>Regressive hypothesis</dt>\n<dd>Viruses may have once been small cells that <a href=\"/wiki/Parasitism\" title=\"Parasitism\">parasitised</a> larger cells. Over time, genes not required by their parasitism were lost. The bacteria <a href=\"/wiki/Rickettsia\" title=\"Rickettsia\">rickettsia</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlamydia_(genus)\" title=\"Chlamydia (genus)\">chlamydia</a> are living cells that, like viruses, can reproduce only inside host cells. They lend support to this hypothesis, as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell. This is also called the 'degeneracy hypothesis',<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock16-26\">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup> or 'reduction hypothesis'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup></dd>\n<dt>Cellular origin hypothesis</dt>\n<dd>Some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that \"escaped\" from the genes of a larger organism. The escaped DNA could have come from <a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">plasmids</a> (pieces of naked DNA that can move between cells) or <a href=\"/wiki/Transposons\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Transposons\">transposons</a> (molecules of DNA that replicate and move around to different positions within the genes of the cell).<sup id=\"cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">&#91;29&#93;</a></sup> Once called <i>jumping genes</i>, transposons are examples of <a href=\"/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements\" title=\"Mobile genetic elements\">mobile genetic elements</a> and could be the origin of some viruses. They were discovered in maize by <a href=\"/wiki/Barbara_McClintock\" title=\"Barbara McClintock\">Barbara McClintock</a> in 1950.<sup id=\"cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup> This is sometimes called the 'vagrancy hypothesis',<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock16-26\">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> or the 'escape hypothesis'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup></dd>\n<dt>Co-evolution hypothesis</dt>\n<dd>This is also called the 'virus-first hypothesis'<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> and proposes that viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleic_acid\" title=\"Nucleic acid\">nucleic acid</a> at the same time that cells first appeared on Earth and would have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years. <a href=\"/wiki/Viroids\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Viroids\">Viroids</a> are molecules of RNA that are not classified as viruses because they lack a protein coat. They have characteristics that are common to several viruses and are often called <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification#Subviral_agents\" title=\"Virus classification\">subviral agents</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> Viroids are important pathogens of plants.<sup id=\"cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">&#91;33&#93;</a></sup> They do not code for proteins but interact with the host cell and use the host machinery for their replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18764915_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18764915-34\">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatitis_delta_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hepatitis delta virus\">hepatitis delta virus</a> of humans has an RNA <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genome</a> similar to viroids but has a protein coat derived from hepatitis B virus and cannot produce one of its own. It is, therefore, a defective virus. Although hepatitis delta virus genome may replicate independently once inside a host cell, it requires the help of hepatitis B virus to provide a protein coat so that it can be transmitted to new cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">&#91;35&#93;</a></sup> In similar manner, the <a href=\"/wiki/Sputnik_virophage\" title=\"Sputnik virophage\">sputnik virophage</a> is dependent on <a href=\"/wiki/Mimivirus\" title=\"Mimivirus\">mimivirus</a>, which infects the protozoan <i><a href=\"/wiki/Acanthamoeba\" title=\"Acanthamoeba\">Acanthamoeba</a> castellanii</i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18690211-36\">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> These viruses, which are dependent on the presence of other virus species in the host cell, are called '<a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">satellites</a>' and may represent evolutionary intermediates of viroids and viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<p>In the past, there were problems with all of these hypotheses: the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus-first hypothesis contravened the definition of viruses in that they require host cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the <a href=\"/wiki/Three-domain_system\" title=\"Three-domain system\">three domains</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-39\">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup> This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re-evaluate these three classical hypotheses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-39\">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The evidence for an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_world\" title=\"RNA world\">ancestral world of RNA</a> cells<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_26-40\">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences are giving a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different viruses and may help identify the ancestors of modern viruses. To date, such analyses have not proved which of these hypotheses is correct.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_26-40\">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> It seems unlikely that all currently known viruses have a common ancestor, and viruses have probably arisen numerous times in the past by one or more mechanisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">&#91;41&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Microbiology\">Microbiology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3\" title=\"Edit section: Microbiology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_properties\">Life properties</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4\" title=\"Edit section: Life properties\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Scientific opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life or organic structures that interact with living organisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid26965225_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid26965225-11\">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\",<sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-10\">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> since they resemble organisms in that they possess <a href=\"/wiki/Genes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Genes\">genes</a>, evolve by <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\">natural selection</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17914905_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17914905-42\">&#91;42&#93;</a></sup> and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. Although they have genes, they do not have a cellular structure, which is often seen as the basic unit of life. Viruses do not have their own <a href=\"/wiki/Metabolism\" title=\"Metabolism\">metabolism</a> and require a host cell to make new products. They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20010599_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20010599-43\">&#91;43&#93;</a></sup>\u2014although some bacteria such as <a href=\"/wiki/Rickettsia\" title=\"Rickettsia\">rickettsia</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlamydia_(genus)\" title=\"Chlamydia (genus)\">chlamydia</a> are considered living organisms despite the same limitation.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18473699_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18473699-44\">&#91;44&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19016440_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19016440-45\">&#91;45&#93;</a></sup> Accepted forms of life use <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_division\" title=\"Cell division\">cell division</a> to reproduce, whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. They differ from <a href=\"/wiki/Self-organisation\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Self-organisation\">autonomous growth</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Crystallization\" title=\"Crystallization\">crystals</a> as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the <a href=\"/wiki/Origin_of_life\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Origin of life\">origin of life</a>, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly\" title=\"Molecular self-assembly\">self-assembling organic molecules</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16984643-2\">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5\" title=\"Edit section: Structure\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti\">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class=\"thumb tmulti tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner multiimageinner\" style=\"width:204px;max-width:204px\"><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Virus_size.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Virus_size.png/200px-Virus_size.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"117\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Virus_size.png/300px-Virus_size.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Virus_size.png/400px-Virus_size.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"922\" data-file-height=\"538\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Virions of some of the most common human viruses with their relative size. The nucleic acids are not to scale.</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Hexon.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hexon.svg/200px-Hexon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"132\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hexon.svg/300px-Hexon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hexon.svg/400px-Hexon.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"439\" data-file-height=\"290\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Diagram of how a virus <a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">capsid</a> can be constructed using multiple copies of just two protein molecules</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:TMV_structure_simple.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TMV_structure_simple.png/200px-TMV_structure_simple.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"142\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TMV_structure_simple.png/300px-TMV_structure_simple.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TMV_structure_simple.png/400px-TMV_structure_simple.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1474\" data-file-height=\"1050\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of <a href=\"/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Tobacco mosaic virus\">tobacco mosaic virus</a>: <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> coiled in a helix of repeating protein sub-units</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg/200px-Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"80\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg/300px-Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg/400px-Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"889\" data-file-height=\"356\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of icosahedral <a href=\"/wiki/Adenovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adenovirus\">adenovirus</a>. Electron micrograph with an illustration to show shape</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Varicella_(Chickenpox)_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg/200px-Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg/300px-Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"367\" data-file-height=\"366\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of <a href=\"/wiki/Chickenpox\" title=\"Chickenpox\">chickenpox</a> virus. They have a lipid envelope</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png/200px-CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"203\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png/300px-CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png/400px-CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"777\" data-file-height=\"789\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of an icosahedral <a href=\"/wiki/Cowpea_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Cowpea mosaic virus\">cowpea mosaic virus</a></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Ms2capsid_surface.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ms2capsid_surface.png/200px-Ms2capsid_surface.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ms2capsid_surface.png/300px-Ms2capsid_surface.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ms2capsid_surface.png/400px-Ms2capsid_surface.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1600\" data-file-height=\"1600\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Bacteriophage <a href=\"/wiki/Escherichia_virus_MS2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Escherichia virus MS2\">Escherichia virus MS2</a> capsid. This spherical virus also has icosahedral symmetry.</div></div></div></div></div>\n<p>Viruses display a wide diversity of sizes and shapes, called '<a href=\"/wiki/Morphology_(biology)\" title=\"Morphology (biology)\">morphologies</a>'. In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria and more than a thousand bacteriophage viruses would fit inside an <i><a href=\"/wiki/Escherichia_coli\" title=\"Escherichia coli\">Escherichia coli</a></i> bacterium's cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">&#91;46&#93;</a></sup> Many viruses that have been studied are spherical and have a diameter between 20 and 300 <a href=\"/wiki/Nanometres\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Nanometres\">nanometres</a>. Some <a href=\"/wiki/Filovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Filovirus\">filoviruses</a>, which are filaments, have a total length of up to 1400&#160;nm; their diameters are only about 80&#160;nm.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier3355_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier3355-47\">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup> Most viruses cannot be seen with an <a href=\"/wiki/Optical_microscope\" title=\"Optical microscope\">optical microscope</a>, so scanning and transmission <a href=\"/wiki/Electron_microscope\" title=\"Electron microscope\">electron microscopes</a> are used to visualise them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> To increase the contrast between viruses and the background, electron-dense \"stains\" are used. These are solutions of <a href=\"/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)\" title=\"Salt (chemistry)\">salts</a> of heavy metals, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Tungsten\" title=\"Tungsten\">tungsten</a>, that scatter the electrons from regions covered with the stain. When virions are coated with stain (positive staining), fine detail is obscured. <a href=\"/wiki/Negative_staining\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negative staining\">Negative staining</a> overcomes this problem by staining the background only.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid1715774_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid1715774-49\">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A complete virus particle, known as a <i>virion</i>, consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a <a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">capsid</a>. These are formed from protein subunits called <a href=\"/wiki/Capsomere\" title=\"Capsomere\">capsomeres</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">&#91;50&#93;</a></sup> Viruses can have a <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid\" title=\"Lipid\">lipid</a> \"envelope\" derived from the host <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_membrane\" title=\"Cell membrane\">cell membrane</a>. The capsid is made from proteins encoded by the viral <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genome</a> and its shape serves as the basis for morphological distinction.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid14019094_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid14019094-51\">&#91;51&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid13309339_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid13309339-52\">&#91;52&#93;</a></sup> Virally-coded protein subunits will self-assemble to form a capsid, in general requiring the presence of the virus genome. Complex viruses code for proteins that assist in the construction of their capsid. Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleoprotein\" title=\"Nucleoprotein\">nucleoproteins</a>, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid. The capsid and entire virus structure can be mechanically (physically) probed through <a href=\"/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy\" title=\"Atomic force microscopy\">atomic force microscopy</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties-53\">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-virus-AFM-imaging_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-virus-AFM-imaging-54\">&#91;54&#93;</a></sup> In general, there are five main morphological virus types:\n</p>\n<dl><dt>Helical</dt>\n<dd>These viruses are composed of a single type of capsomere stacked around a central axis to form a <a href=\"/wiki/Helix\" title=\"Helix\">helical</a> structure, which may have a central cavity, or tube. This arrangement results in virions which can be short and highly rigid rods, or long and very flexible filaments. The genetic material (typically single-stranded RNA, but single-stranded DNA in some cases) is bound into the protein helix by interactions between the negatively charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein. Overall, the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it, and the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of capsomeres. The well-studied tobacco mosaic virus<sup id=\"cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup> and inovirus<sup id=\"cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> are examples of helical viruses.</dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Icosahedral</dt>\n<dd>Most animal viruses are icosahedral or near-spherical with chiral <a href=\"/wiki/Icosahedral_symmetry\" title=\"Icosahedral symmetry\">icosahedral symmetry</a>. A <a href=\"/wiki/Regular_icosahedron\" title=\"Regular icosahedron\">regular icosahedron</a> is the optimum way of forming a closed shell from identical subunits. The minimum number of capsomeres required for each triangular face is 3, which gives 60 for the icosahedron. Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than 60 capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry. To achieve this, the capsomeres at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomeres and are called pentons. Capsomeres on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called <a href=\"/wiki/Hexon_protein\" title=\"Hexon protein\">hexons</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup> Hexons are in essence flat and pentons, which form the 12 vertices, are curved. The same protein may act as the subunit of both the pentamers and hexamers or they may be composed of different proteins.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27045511_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27045511-58\">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Prolate</dt>\n<dd>This is an icosahedron elongated along the fivefold axis and is a common arrangement of the heads of bacteriophages. This structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end.<sup id=\"cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Enveloped</dt>\n<dd>Some species of virus <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">envelop</a> themselves in a modified form of one of the <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_membranes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cell membranes\">cell membranes</a>, either the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell or internal membranes such as a nuclear membrane or <a href=\"/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum\" title=\"Endoplasmic reticulum\">endoplasmic reticulum</a>, thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">viral envelope</a>. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome; the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present originate entirely from the host. <a href=\"/wiki/Influenza_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Influenza virus\">Influenza virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/HIV\" title=\"HIV\">HIV</a> (which causes <a href=\"/wiki/AIDS\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"AIDS\">AIDS</a>), and <a href=\"/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\">severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</a> (which causes <a href=\"/wiki/COVID-19\" title=\"COVID-19\">COVID-19</a>)<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32580969_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32580969-60\">&#91;60&#93;</a></sup> use this strategy. Most enveloped viruses are dependent on the envelope for their infectivity.<sup id=\"cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Complex</dt>\n<dd>These viruses possess a capsid that is neither purely helical nor purely icosahedral, and that may possess extra structures such as protein tails or a complex outer wall. Some bacteriophages, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Enterobacteria_phage_T4\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Enterobacteria phage T4\">Enterobacteria phage T4</a>, have a complex structure consisting of an icosahedral head bound to a helical tail, which may have a <a href=\"/wiki/Hexagon\" title=\"Hexagon\">hexagonal</a> base plate with protruding protein tail fibres. This tail structure acts like a molecular syringe, attaching to the bacterial host and then injecting the viral genome into the cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">&#91;62&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<p>The <a href=\"/wiki/Poxviridae\" title=\"Poxviridae\">poxviruses</a> are large, complex viruses that have an unusual morphology. The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disc structure known as a <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleoid\" title=\"Nucleoid\">nucleoid</a>. The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function. The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface. The whole virion is slightly <a href=\"/wiki/Pleomorphism_(microbiology)\" title=\"Pleomorphism (microbiology)\">pleomorphic</a>, ranging from ovoid to brick-shaped.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid4322005_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid4322005-63\">&#91;63&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Giant_viruses\">Giant viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6\" title=\"Edit section: Giant viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Giant_virus\" title=\"Giant virus\">Giant virus</a></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Mimivirus\" title=\"Mimivirus\">Mimivirus</a> is one of the largest characterised viruses, with a capsid diameter of 400&#160;nm. Protein filaments measuring 100&#160;nm project from the surface. The capsid appears hexagonal under an electron microscope, therefore the capsid is probably icosahedral.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Suzan-Monti2006_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Suzan-Monti2006-64\">&#91;64&#93;</a></sup> In 2011, researchers discovered the largest then known virus in samples of water collected from the ocean floor off the coast of Las Cruces, Chile. Provisionally named <i><a href=\"/wiki/Megavirus\" title=\"Megavirus\">Megavirus</a> chilensis</i>, it can be seen with a basic optical microscope.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid21987820_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid21987820-65\">&#91;65&#93;</a></sup> In 2013, the <a href=\"/wiki/Pandoravirus\" title=\"Pandoravirus\">Pandoravirus</a> genus was discovered in Chile and Australia, and has genomes about twice as large as Megavirus and Mimivirus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pandoravirus-66\">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> All giant viruses have dsDNA genomes and they are classified into several families: <i><a href=\"/wiki/Mimiviridae\" title=\"Mimiviridae\">Mimiviridae</a>, Pithoviridae, <a href=\"/wiki/Pandoraviridae\" title=\"Pandoraviridae\">Pandoraviridae</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Phycodnaviridae\" title=\"Phycodnaviridae\">Phycodnaviridae</a>,</i> and the <a href=\"/wiki/Mollivirus\" title=\"Mollivirus\">Mollivirus</a> genus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31052218_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31052218-67\">&#91;67&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Some viruses that infect <a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a> have complex structures unrelated to any other form of virus, with a wide variety of unusual shapes, ranging from spindle-shaped structures to viruses that resemble hooked rods, teardrops or even bottles. Other archaeal viruses resemble the tailed bacteriophages, and can have multiple tail structures.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Prangishvili_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Prangishvili-68\">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome\">Genome</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7\" title=\"Edit section: Genome\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable floatright\" width=\"275px\">\n<caption>Genomic diversity among viruses\n</caption>\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Property</th>\n<th>Parameters\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Nucleic acid</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>DNA</li>\n<li>RNA</li>\n<li>Both DNA and RNA (at different stages in the life cycle)</li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Shape</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Linear</li>\n<li>Circular</li>\n<li>Segmented</li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Strandedness</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Single-stranded (ss)</li>\n<li>Double-stranded (ds)</li>\n<li>Double-stranded with regions of single-strandedness</li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Sense (molecular biology)\">Sense</a></td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Positive sense (+)</li>\n<li>Negative sense (\u2212)</li>\n<li>Ambisense (+/\u2212)</li></ul>\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<p>An enormous variety of genomic structures can be seen among <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_species\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Viral species\">viral species</a>; as a group, they contain more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384-6\">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> although fewer than 7,000 types have been described in detail.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_p._49_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock_p._49-69\">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup> As of January 2021, the <a href=\"/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information\" title=\"National Center for Biotechnology Information\">NCBI</a> Virus genome database has more than 193,000 complete genome sequences,<sup id=\"cite_ref-nih_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nih-70\">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> but there are doubtlessly many more to be discovered.<sup id=\"cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">&#91;71&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">&#91;72&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A virus has either a <a href=\"/wiki/DNA\" title=\"DNA\">DNA</a> or an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> genome and is called a <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus\" title=\"DNA virus\">DNA virus</a> or an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus\" title=\"RNA virus\">RNA virus</a>, respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA genomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier9699_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier9699-73\">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Viral genomes are circular, as in the <a href=\"/wiki/Polyomavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polyomavirus\">polyomaviruses</a>, or linear, as in the <a href=\"/wiki/Adenoviridae\" title=\"Adenoviridae\">adenoviruses</a>. The type of nucleic acid is irrelevant to the shape of the genome. Among RNA viruses and certain DNA viruses, the genome is often divided up into separate parts, in which case it is called segmented. For RNA viruses, each segment often codes for only one protein and they are usually found together in one capsid. All segments are not required to be in the same virion for the virus to be infectious, as demonstrated by <a href=\"/wiki/Brome_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Brome mosaic virus\">brome mosaic virus</a> and several other plant viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier3355_47-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier3355-47\">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A viral genome, irrespective of nucleic acid type, is almost always either single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds). Single-stranded genomes consist of an unpaired nucleic acid, analogous to one-half of a ladder split down the middle. Double-stranded genomes consist of two complementary paired nucleic acids, analogous to a ladder. The virus particles of some virus families, such as those belonging to the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnaviridae\" title=\"Hepadnaviridae\">Hepadnaviridae</a></i>, contain a genome that is partially double-stranded and partially single-stranded.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier9699_73-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier9699-73\">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>For most viruses with RNA genomes and some with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes, the single strands are said to be either <a href=\"/wiki/Positive-sense\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Positive-sense\">positive-sense</a> (called the 'plus-strand') or <a href=\"/wiki/Negative-sense\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negative-sense\">negative-sense</a> (called the 'minus-strand'), depending on if they are complementary to the viral <a href=\"/wiki/Messenger_RNA\" title=\"Messenger RNA\">messenger RNA</a> (mRNA). Positive-sense viral RNA is in the same sense as viral mRNA and thus at least a part of it can be immediately <a href=\"/wiki/Translation_(genetics)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Translation (genetics)\">translated</a> by the host cell. Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase\" title=\"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase\">RNA-dependent RNA polymerase</a> before translation. DNA nomenclature for viruses with genomic ssDNA is similar to RNA nomenclature, in that positive-strand viral ssDNA is identical in sequence to the viral mRNA and is thus a coding strand, while negative-sense viral ssDNA is complementary to the viral mRNA and is thus a template strand.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier9699_73-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier9699-73\">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup> Several types of ssDNA and ssRNA viruses have genomes that are <a href=\"/wiki/Ambisense\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ambisense\">ambisense</a> in that transcription can occur off both strands in a double-stranded replicative intermediate. Examples include <a href=\"/wiki/Geminiviridae\" title=\"Geminiviridae\">geminiviruses</a>, which are ssDNA plant viruses and <a href=\"/wiki/Arenavirus\" title=\"Arenavirus\">arenaviruses</a>, which are ssRNA viruses of animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-isbn0-470-02387-2_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-isbn0-470-02387-2-74\">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome_size\">Genome size</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8\" title=\"Edit section: Genome size\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<p>Genome size varies greatly between species. The smallest\u2014the ssDNA circoviruses, family <i><a href=\"/wiki/Circoviridae\" title=\"Circoviridae\">Circoviridae</a></i>\u2014code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases;<sup id=\"cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> the largest\u2014the <a href=\"/wiki/Pandoravirus\" title=\"Pandoravirus\">pandoraviruses</a>\u2014have genome sizes of around two megabases which code for about 2500 proteins.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pandoravirus-66\">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> Virus genes rarely have <a href=\"/wiki/Intron\" title=\"Intron\">introns</a> and often are arranged in the genome so that they <a href=\"/wiki/Overlapping_gene\" title=\"Overlapping gene\">overlap</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-brandes_2016_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-brandes_2016-76\">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>In general, RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses because of a higher error-rate when replicating, and have a maximum upper size limit.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20660197-24\">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> Beyond this, errors when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive. To compensate, RNA viruses often have segmented genomes\u2014the genome is split into smaller molecules\u2014thus reducing the chance that an error in a single-component genome will incapacitate the entire genome. In contrast, DNA viruses generally have larger genomes because of the high fidelity of their replication enzymes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">&#91;77&#93;</a></sup> Single-strand DNA viruses are an exception to this rule, as mutation rates for these genomes can approach the extreme of the ssRNA virus case.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19264617_78-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19264617-78\">&#91;78&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genetic_mutation_and_recombination\">Genetic mutation and recombination</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9\" title=\"Edit section: Genetic mutation and recombination\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_geneticshift.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A cartoon showing how viral genes can be shuffled to form new viruses\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/220px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"269\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/330px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/440px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"426\" data-file-height=\"520\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_geneticshift.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Antigenic shift, or reassortment, can result in novel and highly pathogenic strains of <a href=\"/wiki/Human_flu\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Human flu\">human flu</a></div></div></div>\n<p>Viruses undergo genetic change by several mechanisms. These include a process called <a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_drift\" title=\"Antigenic drift\">antigenic drift</a> where individual bases in the DNA or RNA <a href=\"/wiki/Mutate\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mutate\">mutate</a> to other bases. Most of these <a href=\"/wiki/Point_mutations\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Point mutations\">point mutations</a> are \"silent\"\u2014they do not change the protein that the gene encodes\u2014but others can confer evolutionary advantages such as resistance to <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drugs\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antiviral drugs\">antiviral drugs</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22143798_79-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22143798-79\">&#91;79&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20375034_80-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20375034-80\">&#91;80&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_shift\" title=\"Antigenic shift\">Antigenic shift</a> occurs when there is a major change in the genome of the virus. This can be a result of <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_recombination\" title=\"Genetic recombination\">recombination</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Reassortment\" title=\"Reassortment\">reassortment</a>. When this happens with influenza viruses, <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemics\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pandemics\">pandemics</a> might result.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17115950_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17115950-81\">&#91;81&#93;</a></sup> RNA viruses often exist as <a href=\"/wiki/Quasispecies\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Quasispecies\">quasispecies</a> or swarms of viruses of the same species but with slightly different genome nucleoside sequences. Such quasispecies are a prime target for natural selection.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17578210_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17578210-82\">&#91;82&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses (or offspring) that have unique characteristics. This is called reassortment or 'viral sex'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">&#91;83&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_recombination\" title=\"Genetic recombination\">Genetic recombination</a> is a process by which a strand of DNA (or RNA) is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA (or RNA)  molecule. This can occur when viruses infect cells simultaneously and studies of <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_evolution\" title=\"Viral evolution\">viral evolution</a> have shown that recombination has been rampant in the species studied.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10573145_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10573145-84\">&#91;84&#93;</a></sup> Recombination is common to both RNA and DNA viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15578739_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15578739-85\">&#91;85&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10479778_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10479778-86\">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirus\" title=\"Coronavirus\">Coronaviruses</a> have a single-strand positive-sense <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genome</a>.  Replication of the genome is catalyzed by an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase\" title=\"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase\">RNA-dependent RNA polymerase</a>.  The mechanism of <a href=\"/wiki/Homologous_recombination\" title=\"Homologous recombination\">recombination</a> used by coronaviruses likely involves template switching by the polymerase during genome replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">&#91;87&#93;</a></sup>  This process appears to be an adaptation for coping with genome damage.<sup id=\"cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">&#91;88&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Replication_cycle\">Replication cycle</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10\" title=\"Edit section: Replication cycle\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:HepC_replication.png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HepC_replication.png/220px-HepC_replication.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HepC_replication.png/330px-HepC_replication.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HepC_replication.png/440px-HepC_replication.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"960\" data-file-height=\"720\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:HepC_replication.png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>A typical virus replication cycle</div></div></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/220px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"191\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/330px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/440px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"2316\" data-file-height=\"2013\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Some bacteriophages inject their <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genomes</a> into bacterial cells (not to scale)</div></div></div>\n<p>Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid26119571_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid26119571-89\">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> When infected, the host cell is forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid29592895_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid29592895-90\">&#91;90&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Their life cycle differs greatly between species, but there are six basic stages in their life cycle:<sup id=\"cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">&#91;91&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Attachment</i> is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range and type of host cell of a virus. For example, HIV infects a limited range of human <a href=\"/wiki/Leucocytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Leucocytes\">leucocytes</a>. This is because its surface protein, <a href=\"/wiki/Gp120\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Gp120\">gp120</a>, specifically interacts with the <a href=\"/wiki/CD4\" title=\"CD4\">CD4</a> molecule\u2014a <a href=\"/wiki/Chemokine_receptor\" title=\"Chemokine receptor\">chemokine receptor</a>\u2014which is most commonly found on the surface of <a href=\"/wiki/CD4%2B\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"CD4+\">CD4+</a> <a href=\"/wiki/T-Cells\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"T-Cells\">T-Cells</a>. This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo changes that result in the <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion\" title=\"Lipid bilayer fusion\">fusion</a> of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid23737062_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid23737062-92\">&#91;92&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Penetration</i> or <i><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_entry\" title=\"Viral entry\">viral entry</a></i> follows attachment: Virions enter the host cell through receptor-mediated <a href=\"/wiki/Endocytosis\" title=\"Endocytosis\">endocytosis</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion\" title=\"Lipid bilayer fusion\">membrane fusion</a>. The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of <a href=\"/wiki/Cellulose\" title=\"Cellulose\">cellulose</a>, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall.<sup id=\"cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">&#91;93&#93;</a></sup> Nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called <a href=\"/wiki/Plasmodesma\" title=\"Plasmodesma\">plasmodesmata</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup> Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell. Given that bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size, some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall, while the viral capsid remains outside.<sup id=\"cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Uncoating</i> is a process in which the viral capsid is removed: This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end-result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27174165_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27174165-96\">&#91;96&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_replication\" title=\"Viral replication\">Replication</a></i> of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome. Replication involves the synthesis of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) from \"early\" genes (with exceptions for positive-sense RNA viruses), viral <a href=\"/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis\" title=\"Protein biosynthesis\">protein synthesis</a>, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression. This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: \"late\" gene expression is, in general, of structural or virion proteins.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid23231449_97-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid23231449-97\">&#91;97&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Assembly</i> \u2013 Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11451488_98-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11451488-98\">&#91;98&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Release</i> \u2013 Viruses can be <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shedding\" title=\"Viral shedding\">released</a> from the host cell by <a href=\"/wiki/Lysis\" title=\"Lysis\">lysis</a>, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present: this is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a <a href=\"/wiki/Lysogenic_cycle\" title=\"Lysogenic cycle\">lysogenic cycle</a> where the viral genome is incorporated by <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_recombination\" title=\"Genetic recombination\">genetic recombination</a> into a specific place in the host's chromosome. The viral genome is then known as a \"<a href=\"/wiki/Provirus\" title=\"Provirus\">provirus</a>\" or, in the case of bacteriophages a \"<a href=\"/wiki/Prophage\" title=\"Prophage\">prophage</a>\".<sup id=\"cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">&#91;99&#93;</a></sup> Whenever the host divides, the viral genome is also replicated. The viral genome is mostly silent within the host. At some point, the provirus or prophage may give rise to the active virus, which may lyse the host cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup> Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) typically are released from the host cell by <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shedding\" title=\"Viral shedding\">budding</a>. During this process, the virus acquires its envelope, which is a modified piece of the host's plasma or other, internal membrane.<sup id=\"cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">&#91;101&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome_replication\">Genome replication</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11\" title=\"Edit section: Genome replication\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.\n</p>\n<dl><dt>DNA viruses</dt>\n<dd>The genome replication of most <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus\" title=\"DNA virus\">DNA viruses</a> takes place in the cell's <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_nucleus\" title=\"Cell nucleus\">nucleus</a>. If the cell has the appropriate receptor on its surface, these viruses enter the cell either by direct fusion with the cell membrane (e.g., herpesviruses) or\u2014more usually\u2014by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Most DNA viruses are entirely dependent on the host cell's DNA and RNA synthesising machinery and RNA processing machinery. Viruses with larger genomes may encode much of this machinery themselves. In eukaryotes, the viral genome must cross the cell's nuclear membrane to access this machinery, while in bacteria it need only enter the cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">&#91;102&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>RNA viruses</dt>\n<dd>Replication of <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus\" title=\"RNA virus\">RNA viruses</a> usually takes place in the <a href=\"/wiki/Cytoplasm\" title=\"Cytoplasm\">cytoplasm</a>. RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication. The <a href=\"/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Sense (molecular biology)\">polarity</a> (whether or not it can be used directly by ribosomes to make proteins) of single-stranded RNA viruses largely determines the replicative mechanism; the other major criterion is whether the genetic material is single-stranded or double-stranded. All RNA viruses use their own <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_replicase\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"RNA replicase\">RNA replicase</a> enzymes to create copies of their genomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">&#91;103&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Reverse transcribing viruses</dt>\n<dd><a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcribing_viruses\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reverse transcribing viruses\">Reverse transcribing viruses</a> have ssRNA (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Retroviridae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Retroviridae\">Retroviridae</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Metaviridae\" title=\"Metaviridae\">Metaviridae</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Pseudoviridae\" title=\"Pseudoviridae\">Pseudoviridae</a></i>) or dsDNA (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Caulimoviridae\" title=\"Caulimoviridae\">Caulimoviridae</a></i>, and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnaviridae\" title=\"Hepadnaviridae\">Hepadnaviridae</a></i>) in their particles. Reverse transcribing viruses with RNA genomes (<a href=\"/wiki/Retrovirus\" title=\"Retrovirus\">retroviruses</a>) use a DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas those with DNA genomes (<a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA-RT virus\">pararetroviruses</a>) use an RNA intermediate during genome replication. Both types use a <a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase\" title=\"Reverse transcriptase\">reverse transcriptase</a>, or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase enzyme, to carry out the nucleic acid conversion. Retroviruses integrate the DNA produced by <a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcription\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reverse transcription\">reverse transcription</a> into the host genome as a provirus as a part of the replication process; pararetroviruses do not, although integrated genome copies of especially plant pararetroviruses can give rise to infectious virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16949329_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16949329-104\">&#91;104&#93;</a></sup> They are susceptible to <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">antiviral drugs</a> that inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme, e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Zidovudine\" title=\"Zidovudine\">zidovudine</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Lamivudine\" title=\"Lamivudine\">lamivudine</a>. An example of the first type is HIV, which is a retrovirus. Examples of the second type are the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnaviridae\" title=\"Hepadnaviridae\">Hepadnaviridae</a></i>, which includes Hepatitis B virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">&#91;105&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cytopathic_effects_on_the_host_cell\">Cytopathic effects on the host cell</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12\" title=\"Edit section: Cytopathic effects on the host cell\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive.<sup id=\"cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">&#91;106&#93;</a></sup> These are called '<a href=\"/wiki/Cytopathic_effect\" title=\"Cytopathic effect\">cytopathic effects</a>'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">&#91;107&#93;</a></sup> Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell's surface membrane and <a href=\"/wiki/Apoptosis\" title=\"Apoptosis\">apoptosis</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10547702_108-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10547702-108\">&#91;108&#93;</a></sup> Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activities because of suppression by virus-specific proteins, not all of which are components of the virus particle.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18637511_109-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18637511-109\">&#91;109&#93;</a></sup> The distinction between cytopathic and harmless is gradual. Some viruses, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus\" title=\"Epstein\u2013Barr virus\">Epstein\u2013Barr virus</a>, can cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18035323_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18035323-110\">&#91;110&#93;</a></sup> while others, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Papillomavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Papillomavirus\">papillomaviruses</a>, are established causes of cancer.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19020360_111-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19020360-111\">&#91;111&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dormant_and_latent_infections\">Dormant and latent infections</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13\" title=\"Edit section: Dormant and latent infections\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_latency\" title=\"Virus latency\">latent</a> and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18164651_112-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18164651-112\">&#91;112&#93;</a></sup> This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with <a href=\"/wiki/Herpes_simplex\" title=\"Herpes simplex\">herpes viruses</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid6326635_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid6326635-113\">&#91;113&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid12076064_114-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid12076064-114\">&#91;114&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Host_range\">Host range</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14\" title=\"Edit section: Host range\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Viruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all the others put together.<sup id=\"cite_ref-isbn0-19-957485-5_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-isbn0-19-957485-5-115\">&#91;115&#93;</a></sup> They infect all types of cellular life including animals, plants, <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophage\" title=\"Bacteriophage\">bacteria</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Mycovirus\" title=\"Mycovirus\">fungi</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_p._49_69-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock_p._49-69\">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup> Different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of hosts and many are species-specific. Some, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Smallpox_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Smallpox virus\">smallpox virus</a> for example, can infect only one species\u2014in this case humans,<sup id=\"cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup> and are said to have a narrow <a href=\"/wiki/Host_specificity\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Host specificity\">host range</a>. Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range.<sup id=\"cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">&#91;117&#93;</a></sup> The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans.<sup id=\"cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">&#91;118&#93;</a></sup> The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single <a href=\"/wiki/Strain_(biology)\" title=\"Strain (biology)\">strain</a> of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called <a href=\"/wiki/Phage_typing\" title=\"Phage typing\">phage typing</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20122382_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20122382-119\">&#91;119&#93;</a></sup> The complete set of viruses in an organism or habitat is called the <a href=\"/wiki/Virome\" title=\"Virome\">virome</a>; for example, all human viruses constitute the <a href=\"/wiki/Human_virome\" title=\"Human virome\">human virome</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27698618_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27698618-120\">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Novel_viruses\">Novel viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15\" title=\"Edit section: Novel viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>A <b>novel virus</b> is one that has not previously been recorded. It can be a virus that is isolated from its <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_reservoir\" title=\"Natural reservoir\">natural reservoir</a> or isolated as the result of <a href=\"/wiki/Zoonosis\" title=\"Zoonosis\">spread to an animal or human host</a> where the virus had not been identified before. It can be an <a href=\"/wiki/Emergent_virus\" title=\"Emergent virus\">emergent virus</a>, one that represents a new virus, but it can also be an extant virus that has not been <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">previously identified</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22966141_121-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22966141-121\">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/SARS-CoV-2\" title=\"SARS-CoV-2\">SARS-CoV-2</a> coronavirus that caused the pandemic of covid  disease is an example of a novel virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32143502_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32143502-122\">&#91;122&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classification\">Classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16\" title=\"Edit section: Classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">Virus classification</a></div>\n<p><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Genogroup\"></span>\nClassification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962, <a href=\"/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lwoff\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Andr\u00e9 Lwoff\">Andr\u00e9 Lwoff</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Robert_Horne_(virologist)\" title=\"Robert Horne (virologist)\">Robert Horne</a>, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the <a href=\"/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy\" title=\"Linnaean taxonomy\">Linnaean</a> hierarchical system.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid14467544_123-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid14467544-123\">&#91;123&#93;</a></sup> This system based classification on <a href=\"/wiki/Phylum\" title=\"Phylum\">phylum</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Class_(biology)\" title=\"Class (biology)\">class</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Order_(biology)\" title=\"Order (biology)\">order</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Family_(biology)\" title=\"Family (biology)\">family</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Genus\" title=\"Genus\">genus</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Species\" title=\"Species\">species</a>. Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid13931895_124-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid13931895-124\">&#91;124&#93;</a></sup> In 1966, the <a href=\"/wiki/International_Committee_on_Taxonomy_of_Viruses\" title=\"International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses\">International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses</a> (ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the <a href=\"/wiki/Baltimore_classification\" title=\"Baltimore classification\">Baltimore classification</a> system has come to be used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16105179_125-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16105179-125\">&#91;125&#93;</a></sup> Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">&#91;126&#93;</a></sup> Additionally, some species within the same genus are grouped into a <b>genogroup</b>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid34226482_127-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid34226482-127\">&#91;127&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22286874_128-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22286874-128\">&#91;128&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ICTV_classification\">ICTV classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17\" title=\"Edit section: ICTV classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32341570_129-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32341570-129\">&#91;129&#93;</a></sup> Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied.<sup id=\"cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-130\">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup> As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_families_and_subfamilies\" title=\"List of virus families and subfamilies\">233 families, 168 subfamilies</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_genera\" title=\"List of virus genera\">2,606 genera, 84 subgenera</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_species\" title=\"List of virus species\">10,434 species</a> of viruses have been defined by the ICTV.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ictv2021_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ictv2021-5\">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ictv2021_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ictv2021-5\">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Realm_(virology)\" title=\"Realm (virology)\">Realm</a> (<i>-viria</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subrealm (<i>-vira</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)\" title=\"Kingdom (biology)\">Kingdom</a> (<i>-virae</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subkingdom (<i>-virites</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Phylum_(biology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phylum (biology)\">Phylum</a> (<i>-viricota</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subphylum (<i>-viricotina</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Class_(biology)\" title=\"Class (biology)\">Class</a> (<i>-viricetes</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subclass (<i>-viricetidae</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Order_(biology)\" title=\"Order (biology)\">Order</a> (<i>-virales</i>)\n<dl><dd>Suborder (<i>-virineae</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Family_(biology)\" title=\"Family (biology)\">Family</a> (<i>-viridae</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subfamily (<i>-virinae</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Genus\" title=\"Genus\">Genus</a> (<i>-virus</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subgenus (<i>-virus</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Species\" title=\"Species\">Species</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Baltimore_classification\">Baltimore classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18\" title=\"Edit section: Baltimore classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Baltimore_classification\" title=\"Baltimore classification\">Baltimore classification</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:332px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A diagram showing how the Baltimore Classification is based on a virus&#39;s DNA or RNA and method of mRNA synthesis\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg/330px-VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"330\" height=\"204\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg/495px-VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg/660px-VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"626\" data-file-height=\"387\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>The Baltimore Classification of viruses is based on the method of viral <a href=\"/wiki/MRNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"MRNA\">mRNA</a> synthesis</div></div></div>\n<p>The Nobel Prize-winning biologist <a href=\"/wiki/David_Baltimore\" title=\"David Baltimore\">David Baltimore</a> devised the <a href=\"/wiki/Baltimore_classification\" title=\"Baltimore classification\">Baltimore classification</a> system.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid4348509_131-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid4348509-131\">&#91;131&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid4377923_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid4377923-132\">&#91;132&#93;</a></sup> The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15078590_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15078590-133\">&#91;133&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10486120_134-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10486120-134\">&#91;134&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15183049_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15183049-135\">&#91;135&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of <a href=\"/wiki/MRNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"MRNA\">mRNA</a> production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use <a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase\" title=\"Reverse transcriptase\">reverse transcriptase</a> (RT). In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either <a href=\"/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Sense (molecular biology)\">sense</a> (+) or antisense (\u2212). This classification places viruses into seven groups:\n</p>\n<ul><li>I: <a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA virus\">dsDNA viruses</a> (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Adenovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adenovirus\">Adenoviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Herpesvirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Herpesvirus\">Herpesviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Poxvirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Poxvirus\">Poxviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>II: <a href=\"/wiki/SsDNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"SsDNA virus\">ssDNA viruses</a> (+ strand or \"sense\") DNA (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Parvovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parvovirus\">Parvoviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>III: <a href=\"/wiki/DsRNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsRNA virus\">dsRNA viruses</a> (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Reovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reovirus\">Reoviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>IV:<a href=\"/wiki/Positive-sense_ssRNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Positive-sense ssRNA virus\">(+)ssRNA viruses</a> (+ strand or sense) RNA (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirus\" title=\"Coronavirus\">Coronaviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Picornavirus\" title=\"Picornavirus\">Picornaviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Togavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Togavirus\">Togaviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>V: <a href=\"/wiki/Negative-sense_ssRNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negative-sense ssRNA virus\">(\u2212)ssRNA viruses</a> (\u2212 strand or antisense) RNA (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Orthomyxovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Orthomyxovirus\">Orthomyxoviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Rhabdovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhabdovirus\">Rhabdoviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>VI: <a href=\"/wiki/SsRNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"SsRNA-RT virus\">ssRNA-RT viruses</a> (+ strand or sense) RNA with DNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Retrovirus\" title=\"Retrovirus\">Retroviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>VII: <a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA-RT virus\">dsDNA-RT viruses</a> DNA with RNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hepadnavirus\">Hepadnaviruses</a>)</li></ul>\n<p><br />\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_in_human_disease\">Role in human disease</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19\" title=\"Edit section: Role in human disease\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_disease\" title=\"Viral disease\">Viral disease</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A photograph of the upper body of a man labelled with the names of viruses that infect the different parts\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg/220px-Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"210\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg/330px-Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg/440px-Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1421\" data-file-height=\"1358\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Overview of the main types of viral infection and the most notable species involved<sup id=\"cite_ref-Microbiology_136-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Microbiology-136\">&#91;136&#93;</a></sup></div></div></div>\n<p>Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the <a href=\"/wiki/Common_cold\" title=\"Common cold\">common cold</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Influenza\" title=\"Influenza\">influenza</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chickenpox\" title=\"Chickenpox\">chickenpox</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Cold_sores\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cold sores\">cold sores</a>. Many serious diseases such as <a href=\"/wiki/Rabies\" title=\"Rabies\">rabies</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus disease\">Ebola virus disease</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/HIV/AIDS\" title=\"HIV/AIDS\">AIDS (HIV)</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Avian_influenza\" title=\"Avian influenza\">avian influenza</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/SARS\" title=\"SARS\">SARS</a> are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of <a href=\"/wiki/Virulence\" title=\"Virulence\">virulence</a>. Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between <a href=\"/wiki/Human_herpesvirus_6\" title=\"Human herpesvirus 6\">human herpesvirus 6</a> (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as <a href=\"/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis\" title=\"Multiple sclerosis\">multiple sclerosis</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome\" title=\"Chronic fatigue syndrome\">chronic fatigue syndrome</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-&#80;MID_17276367_137-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PMID_17276367-137\">&#91;137&#93;</a></sup> There is controversy over whether the <a href=\"/wiki/Bornavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bornavirus\">bornavirus</a>, previously thought to cause <a href=\"/wiki/Neurology\" title=\"Neurology\">neurological</a> diseases in horses, could be responsible for <a href=\"/wiki/Psychiatry\" title=\"Psychiatry\">psychiatric</a> illnesses in humans.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Chen_1999_138-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chen_1999-138\">&#91;138&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which depends largely on the viral species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In <a href=\"/wiki/Multicellular_organism\" title=\"Multicellular organism\">multicellular organisms</a>, if enough cells die, the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although viruses cause disruption of healthy <a href=\"/wiki/Homeostasis\" title=\"Homeostasis\">homeostasis</a>, resulting in disease, they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the <a href=\"/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus\" title=\"Herpes simplex virus\">herpes simplex virus</a>, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. This is called latency<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17686862_139-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17686862-139\">&#91;139&#93;</a></sup> and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses, including Epstein\u2013Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and <a href=\"/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus\" title=\"Varicella zoster virus\">varicella zoster virus</a>, which causes chickenpox and <a href=\"/wiki/Shingles\" title=\"Shingles\">shingles</a>. Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-140\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-140\">&#91;140&#93;</a></sup> These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens, such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Yersinia_pestis\" title=\"Yersinia pestis\">Yersinia pestis</a></i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">&#91;141&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Some viruses can cause lifelong or <a href=\"/wiki/Chronic_(medical)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chronic (medical)\">chronic</a> infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17931183_142-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17931183-142\">&#91;142&#93;</a></sup> This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17664817_143-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17664817-143\">&#91;143&#93;</a></sup> In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be <a href=\"/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)\" title=\"Endemic (epidemiology)\">endemic</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17645465_144-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17645465-144\">&#91;144&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Epidemiology\">Epidemiology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20\" title=\"Edit section: Epidemiology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Viral <a href=\"/wiki/Epidemiology\" title=\"Epidemiology\">epidemiology</a> is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and control of virus infections in humans. Transmission of viruses can be vertical, which means from mother to child, or horizontal, which means from person to person. Examples of <a href=\"/wiki/Vertical_transmission\" title=\"Vertical transmission\">vertical transmission</a> include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is born already infected with the virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17825648_145-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17825648-145\">&#91;145&#93;</a></sup> Another, more rare, example is the <a href=\"/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus\" title=\"Varicella zoster virus\">varicella zoster virus</a>, which, although causing relatively mild infections in children and adults, can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11190597_146-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11190597-146\">&#91;146&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_transmission\" title=\"Horizontal transmission\">Horizontal transmission</a> is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28289251_147-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28289251-147\">&#91;147&#93;</a></sup> Horizontal transmission can occur when body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity, by exchange of saliva or when contaminated food or water is ingested. It can also occur when <a href=\"/wiki/Aerosol\" title=\"Aerosol\">aerosols</a> containing viruses are inhaled or by insect <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vector (epidemiology)\">vectors</a> such as when infected mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28289251_147-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28289251-147\">&#91;147&#93;</a></sup> Most types of viruses are restricted to just one or two of these mechanisms and they are referred to as \"respiratory viruses\" or \"enteric viruses\" and so forth. The rate or speed of transmission of viral infections depends on factors that include population density, the number of susceptible individuals, (i.e., those not immune),<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15627236_148-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15627236-148\">&#91;148&#93;</a></sup> the quality of healthcare and the weather.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16544901_149-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16544901-149\">&#91;149&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Epidemiology is used to break the chain of infection in populations during outbreaks of <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_disease\" title=\"Viral disease\">viral diseases</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">&#91;150&#93;</a></sup> Control measures are used that are based on knowledge of how the virus is transmitted. It is important to find the source, or sources, of the outbreak and to identify the virus. Once the virus has been identified, the chain of transmission can sometimes be broken by vaccines. When vaccines are not available, sanitation and disinfection can be effective. Often, infected people are isolated from the rest of the community, and those that have been exposed to the virus are placed in <a href=\"/wiki/Quarantine\" title=\"Quarantine\">quarantine</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">&#91;151&#93;</a></sup> To control the <a href=\"/wiki/2001_United_Kingdom_foot-and-mouth_outbreak\" title=\"2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak\">outbreak</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Foot-and-mouth_disease\" title=\"Foot-and-mouth disease\">foot-and-mouth disease</a> in cattle in Britain in 2001, thousands of cattle were slaughtered.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19091686_152-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19091686-152\">&#91;152&#93;</a></sup> Most viral infections of humans and other animals have <a href=\"/wiki/Incubation_period\" title=\"Incubation period\">incubation periods</a> during which the infection causes no signs or symptoms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">&#91;153&#93;</a></sup> Incubation periods for viral diseases range from a few days to weeks, but are known for most infections.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Shorspp_154-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Shorspp-154\">&#91;154&#93;</a></sup> Somewhat overlapping, but mainly following the incubation period, there is a period of communicability\u2014a time when an infected individual or animal is contagious and can infect another person or animal.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Shorspp_154-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Shorspp-154\">&#91;154&#93;</a></sup> This, too, is known for many viral infections, and knowledge of the length of both periods is important in the control of outbreaks.<sup id=\"cite_ref-155\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-155\">&#91;155&#93;</a></sup> When outbreaks cause an unusually high proportion of cases in a population, community, or region, they are called epidemics. If outbreaks spread worldwide, they are called <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemic\" title=\"Pandemic\">pandemics</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-156\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-156\">&#91;156&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Epidemics_and_pandemics\">Epidemics and pandemics</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21\" title=\"Edit section: Epidemics and pandemics\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"1918 flu pandemic\">1918 flu pandemic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/AIDS\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"AIDS\">AIDS</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus disease\">Ebola virus disease</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic\" title=\"COVID-19 pandemic\">COVID-19 pandemic</a></div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_epidemics\" title=\"List of epidemics\">List of epidemics</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"An electron micrograph of the virus that caused Spanish influenza\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/220px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"136\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/330px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/440px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"2126\" data-file-height=\"1312\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div><a href=\"/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy\" title=\"Transmission electron microscopy\">Transmission electron microscope</a> image of a recreated 1918 influenza virus</div></div></div>\n<p>A <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemic\" title=\"Pandemic\">pandemic</a> is a worldwide <a href=\"/wiki/Epidemic\" title=\"Epidemic\">epidemic</a>. The <a href=\"/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"1918 flu pandemic\">1918 flu pandemic</a>, which lasted until 1919, was a <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemic_Severity_Index\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pandemic Severity Index\">category 5</a> influenza pandemic caused by an unusually severe and deadly influenza A virus. The victims were often healthy young adults, in contrast to most influenza outbreaks, which predominantly affect juvenile, elderly, or otherwise-weakened patients.<sup id=\"cite_ref-157\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-157\">&#91;157&#93;</a></sup> Older estimates say it killed 40\u201350&#160;million people,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Patterson1_158-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Patterson1-158\">&#91;158&#93;</a></sup> while more recent research suggests that it may have killed as many as 100&#160;million people, or 5% of the world's population in 1918.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11875246_159-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11875246-159\">&#91;159&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Although viral pandemics are rare events, HIV\u2014which evolved from viruses found in monkeys and chimpanzees\u2014has been pandemic since at least the 1980s.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid29460740_160-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid29460740-160\">&#91;160&#93;</a></sup> During the 20th century there were four pandemics caused by influenza virus and those that occurred in 1918, 1957 and 1968 were severe.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid30180422_161-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid30180422-161\">&#91;161&#93;</a></sup> Most researchers believe that HIV originated in <a href=\"/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa\" title=\"Sub-Saharan Africa\">sub-Saharan Africa</a> during the 20th century;<sup id=\"cite_ref-Gao_162-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gao-162\">&#91;162&#93;</a></sup> it is now a pandemic, with an estimated 37.9&#160;million people now living with the disease worldwide.<sup id=\"cite_ref-UNAIDS_DATA_2019_163-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNAIDS_DATA_2019-163\">&#91;163&#93;</a></sup> There were about 770,000 deaths from AIDS in 2018.<sup id=\"cite_ref-UNAIDS_resources_164-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNAIDS_resources-164\">&#91;164&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Joint_United_Nations_Programme_on_HIV/AIDS\" title=\"Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS\">Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS</a> (UNAIDS) and the <a href=\"/wiki/World_Health_Organization\" title=\"World Health Organization\">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25&#160;million people since it was first recognised on 5 June 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16517997_165-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16517997-165\">&#91;165&#93;</a></sup> In 2007 there were 2.7&#160;million new HIV infections and 2&#160;million HIV-related deaths.<sup id=\"cite_ref-166\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-166\">&#91;166&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti\"/><div class=\"thumb tmulti tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner multiimageinner\" style=\"width:154px;max-width:154px\"><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:152px;max-width:152px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Ebola_virus_em.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ebola_virus_em.png/150px-Ebola_virus_em.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"212\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ebola_virus_em.png/225px-Ebola_virus_em.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ebola_virus_em.png/300px-Ebola_virus_em.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"2043\" data-file-height=\"2887\" /></a></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:152px;max-width:152px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Marburg_virus.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Marburg_virus.jpg/150px-Marburg_virus.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"102\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Marburg_virus.jpg/225px-Marburg_virus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Marburg_virus.jpg/300px-Marburg_virus.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"700\" data-file-height=\"474\" /></a></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\" style=\"display:flex\"><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Ebola (top) and Marburg viruses (bottom)</div></div></div></div>\n<p>Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Filoviridae\" title=\"Filoviridae\">Filoviridae</a></i>. Filoviruses are filament-like viruses that cause <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever\" title=\"Viral hemorrhagic fever\">viral hemorrhagic fever</a>, and include <a href=\"/wiki/Ebolavirus\" title=\"Ebolavirus\">ebolaviruses</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Marburgvirus\" title=\"Marburgvirus\">marburgviruses</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Marburg_virus\" title=\"Marburg virus\">Marburg virus</a>, first discovered in 1967, attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in <a href=\"/wiki/Angola\" title=\"Angola\">Angola</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16775337_167-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16775337-167\">&#91;167&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus disease\">Ebola virus disease</a> has also caused <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_Ebola_outbreaks\" title=\"List of Ebola outbreaks\">intermittent outbreaks</a> with high mortality rates since 1976 when it was first identified. The worst and most recent one is the 2013\u20132016 <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_epidemic_in_West_Africa\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa\">West Africa epidemic</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-168\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-168\">&#91;168&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Except for smallpox, most pandemics are caused by newly evolved viruses. These <a href=\"/wiki/Emergent_virus\" title=\"Emergent virus\">\"emergent\"</a> viruses are usually mutants of less harmful viruses that have circulated previously either in humans or other animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-169\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-169\">&#91;169&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome (<a href=\"/wiki/SARS\" title=\"SARS\">SARS</a>) and <a href=\"/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Middle East respiratory syndrome\">Middle East respiratory syndrome</a> (MERS)  are caused by new types of <a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirus\" title=\"Coronavirus\">coronaviruses</a>. Other coronaviruses are known to cause mild infections in humans,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22094080_170-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22094080-170\">&#91;170&#93;</a></sup> so the virulence and rapid spread of SARS infections\u2014that by July 2003 had caused around 8,000 cases and 800 deaths\u2014was unexpected and most countries were not prepared.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28475794_171-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28475794-171\">&#91;171&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A related coronavirus, <a href=\"/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\">severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2)</a>, thought to have originated in bats, emerged in <a href=\"/wiki/Wuhan\" title=\"Wuhan\">Wuhan</a>, China in November 2019 and spread rapidly around the world.  Infections with the virus caused the <a href=\"/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic\" title=\"COVID-19 pandemic\">COVID-19 pandemic</a> that started in 2020.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32143502_122-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32143502-122\">&#91;122&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32093211_172-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32093211-172\">&#91;172&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32109444_173-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32109444-173\">&#91;173&#93;</a></sup> Unprecedented restrictions in peacetime were placed on international travel,<sup id=\"cite_ref-174\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-174\">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> and <a href=\"/wiki/Curfews\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Curfews\">curfews</a> were imposed in several major cities worldwide in response to the pandemic.<sup id=\"cite_ref-175\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-175\">&#91;175&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cancer\">Cancer</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22\" title=\"Edit section: Cancer\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Oncovirus\" title=\"Oncovirus\">Oncovirus</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species. Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons (or animals). Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families, including both RNA and DNA viruses, and so there is no single type of \"<a href=\"/wiki/Oncovirus\" title=\"Oncovirus\">oncovirus</a>\" (an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses). The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19467474_176-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19467474-176\">&#91;176&#93;</a></sup> and mutations in the host.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18812503_177-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18812503-177\">&#91;177&#93;</a></sup> Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of <a href=\"/wiki/Human_papillomavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Human papillomavirus\">human papillomavirus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatitis_B_virus\" title=\"Hepatitis B virus\">hepatitis B virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus\" title=\"Hepatitis C virus\">hepatitis C virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus\" title=\"Epstein\u2013Barr virus\">Epstein\u2013Barr virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus\" title=\"Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus\">Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Human T-lymphotropic virus\">human T-lymphotropic virus</a>. The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus (<a href=\"/wiki/Merkel_cell_polyomavirus\" title=\"Merkel cell polyomavirus\">Merkel cell polyomavirus</a>) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called <a href=\"/wiki/Merkel_cell_carcinoma\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Merkel cell carcinoma\">Merkel cell carcinoma</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19395876_178-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19395876-178\">&#91;178&#93;</a></sup>\nHepatitis viruses can develop into a chronic viral infection that leads to <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma\" title=\"Hepatocellular carcinoma\">liver cancer</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-179\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-179\">&#91;179&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-180\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-180\">&#91;180&#93;</a></sup> Infection by human T-lymphotropic virus can lead to <a href=\"/wiki/Tropical_spastic_paraparesis\" title=\"Tropical spastic paraparesis\">tropical spastic paraparesis</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Adult_T-cell_leukemia\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adult T-cell leukemia\">adult T-cell leukaemia</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-181\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-181\">&#91;181&#93;</a></sup> Human papillomaviruses are an established cause of cancers of <a href=\"/wiki/Cervix\" title=\"Cervix\">cervix</a>, skin, <a href=\"/wiki/Anus\" title=\"Anus\">anus</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Penis\" title=\"Penis\">penis</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-182\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-182\">&#91;182&#93;</a></sup> Within the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Herpesviridae\" title=\"Herpesviridae\">Herpesviridae</a></i>, <a href=\"/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus\" title=\"Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus\">Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus</a> causes <a href=\"/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma\" title=\"Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma\">Kaposi's sarcoma</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Primary_effusion_lymphoma\" title=\"Primary effusion lymphoma\">body-cavity lymphoma</a>, and Epstein\u2013Barr virus causes <a href=\"/wiki/Burkitt%27s_lymphoma\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Burkitt&#39;s lymphoma\">Burkitt's lymphoma</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma\">Hodgkin's lymphoma</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/B_cell\" title=\"B cell\">B</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Lymphoproliferative_disorders\" title=\"Lymphoproliferative disorders\">lymphoproliferative disorder</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma\" title=\"Nasopharyngeal carcinoma\">nasopharyngeal carcinoma</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-183\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-183\">&#91;183&#93;</a></sup> Merkel cell polyomavirus closely related to <a href=\"/wiki/SV40\" title=\"SV40\">SV40</a> and mouse polyomaviruses that have been used as animal models for cancer viruses for over 50 years.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18449881_184-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18449881-184\">&#91;184&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Host_defence_mechanisms\">Host defence mechanisms</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23\" title=\"Edit section: Host defence mechanisms\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_system\" title=\"Immune system\">Immune system</a></div>\n<p>The body's first line of defence against viruses is the <a href=\"/wiki/Innate_immune_system\" title=\"Innate immune system\">innate immune system</a>. This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non-specific manner. This means that the cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a generic way, but, unlike the <a href=\"/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system\" title=\"Adaptive immune system\">adaptive immune system</a>, it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Alberts_185-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Alberts-185\">&#91;185&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/RNA_interference\" title=\"RNA interference\">RNA interference</a> is an important innate defence against viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17693253_186-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17693253-186\">&#91;186&#93;</a></sup> Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule or molecules, which immediately bind to a protein complex called a <a href=\"/wiki/Dicer\" title=\"Dicer\">dicer</a> that cuts the RNA into smaller pieces. A biochemical pathway\u2014the <a href=\"/wiki/RNA-induced_silencing_complex\" title=\"RNA-induced silencing complex\">RISC complex</a>\u2014is activated, which ensures cell survival by degrading the viral mRNA. Rotaviruses have evolved to avoid this defence mechanism by not uncoating fully inside the cell, and releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid. Their genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15579070_187-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15579070-187\">&#91;187&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15010218_188-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15010218-188\">&#91;188&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>When the <a href=\"/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system\" title=\"Adaptive immune system\">adaptive immune system</a> of a <a href=\"/wiki/Vertebrate\" title=\"Vertebrate\">vertebrate</a> encounters a virus, it produces specific <a href=\"/wiki/Antibodies\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antibodies\">antibodies</a> that bind to the virus and often render it non-infectious. This is called <a href=\"/wiki/Humoral_immunity\" title=\"Humoral immunity\">humoral immunity</a>. Two types of antibodies are important. The first, called <a href=\"/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M\" title=\"Immunoglobulin M\">IgM</a>, is highly effective at neutralising viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called <a href=\"/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G\" title=\"Immunoglobulin G\">IgG</a>, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid8903801_189-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid8903801-189\">&#91;189&#93;</a></sup> IgG antibody is measured when tests for <a href=\"/wiki/Immunity_(medical)\" title=\"Immunity (medical)\">immunity</a> are carried out.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid9086126_190-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid9086126-190\">&#91;190&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Antibodies can continue to be an effective defence mechanism even after viruses have managed to gain entry to the host cell. A protein that is in cells, called <a href=\"/wiki/TRIM21\" title=\"TRIM21\">TRIM21</a>, can attach to the antibodies on the surface of the virus particle. This primes the subsequent destruction of the virus by the enzymes of the cell's <a href=\"/wiki/Proteosome\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Proteosome\">proteosome</a> system.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid21045130_191-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid21045130-191\">&#91;191&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"Two spherical rotavirus particles, one is coated with antibody which looks like many small birds, regularly spaced on the surface of the virus\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg/220px-Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"119\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg/330px-Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg/440px-Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1072\" data-file-height=\"579\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Two <a href=\"/wiki/Rotavirus\" title=\"Rotavirus\">rotaviruses</a>: the one on the right is coated with antibodies that prevent its attachment to cells and infecting them.</div></div></div>\n<p>A second defence of vertebrates against viruses is called <a href=\"/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity\" title=\"Cell-mediated immunity\">cell-mediated immunity</a> and involves immune cells known as <a href=\"/wiki/T_cells\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"T cells\">T cells</a>. The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by 'killer T' cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. Cells such as the <a href=\"/wiki/Macrophage\" title=\"Macrophage\">macrophage</a> are specialists at this <a href=\"/wiki/Antigen_presentation\" title=\"Antigen presentation\">antigen presentation</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17725500_192-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17725500-192\">&#91;192&#93;</a></sup> The production of <a href=\"/wiki/Interferon\" title=\"Interferon\">interferon</a> is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11256746_193-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11256746-193\">&#91;193&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response in this way. HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. This is known as \"escape mutation\" as the viral epitopes escape recognition by the host immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration, blockade of <a href=\"/wiki/Antigen_presentation\" title=\"Antigen presentation\">antigen presentation</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Cytokine\" title=\"Cytokine\">cytokine</a> resistance, evasion of <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_killer_cell\" title=\"Natural killer cell\">natural killer cell</a> activities, escape from <a href=\"/wiki/Apoptosis\" title=\"Apoptosis\">apoptosis</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_shift\" title=\"Antigenic shift\">antigenic shift</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15297608_194-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15297608-194\">&#91;194&#93;</a></sup> Other viruses, called '<a href=\"/wiki/Neurotropic_virus\" title=\"Neurotropic virus\">neurotropic viruses</a>', are disseminated by neural spread where the immune system may be unable to reach them due to <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_privilege\" title=\"Immune privilege\">immune privilege</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid25015488_195-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid25015488-195\">&#91;195&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Prevention_and_treatment\">Prevention and treatment</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24\" title=\"Edit section: Prevention and treatment\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general. The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are <a href=\"/wiki/Vaccination\" title=\"Vaccination\">vaccinations</a> to provide immunity to infection, and <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drugs\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antiviral drugs\">antiviral drugs</a> that selectively interfere with viral replication.\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Vaccines\">Vaccines</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25\" title=\"Edit section: Vaccines\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Vaccination\" title=\"Vaccination\">Vaccination</a></div>\n<p>Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as <a href=\"/wiki/Polio\" title=\"Polio\">polio</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Measles\" title=\"Measles\">measles</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Mumps\" title=\"Mumps\">mumps</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Rubella\" title=\"Rubella\">rubella</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17068034_196-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17068034-196\">&#91;196&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Smallpox\" title=\"Smallpox\">Smallpox</a> infections have been eradicated.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16989262_197-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16989262-197\">&#91;197&#93;</a></sup> Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16364754_198-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16364754-198\">&#91;198&#93;</a></sup> and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17892169_199-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17892169-199\">&#91;199&#93;</a></sup> Vaccines can consist of live-attenuated or killed viruses, viral proteins (<a href=\"/wiki/Antigens\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antigens\">antigens</a>), or <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_vaccine\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"RNA vaccine\">RNA</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16494719_200-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16494719-200\">&#91;200&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid33933145_201-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid33933145-201\">&#91;201&#93;</a></sup> Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as <a href=\"/wiki/Immunocompromised\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Immunocompromised\">immunocompromised</a>), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid1090805_202-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid1090805-202\">&#91;202&#93;</a></sup> Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid3018891_203-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid3018891-203\">&#91;203&#93;</a></sup> Subunit vaccines are safe for <a href=\"/wiki/Immunocompromised\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Immunocompromised\">immunocompromised</a> patients because they cannot cause the disease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16221073_204-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16221073-204\">&#91;204&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine\" title=\"Yellow fever vaccine\">yellow fever virus vaccine</a>, a live-attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18564013_205-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18564013-205\">&#91;205&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Antiviral_drugs\">Antiviral drugs</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26\" title=\"Edit section: Antiviral drugs\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">Antiviral drug</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png/170px-Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"210\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png/255px-Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png/340px-Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"652\" data-file-height=\"807\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>The structure of the DNA base <a href=\"/wiki/Guanosine\" title=\"Guanosine\">guanosine</a> and the antiviral drug <a href=\"/wiki/Acyclovir\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Acyclovir\">acyclovir</a></div></div></div>\n<p>Antiviral drugs are often <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleoside_analogues\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Nucleoside analogues\">nucleoside analogues</a> (fake DNA building-blocks), which viruses mistakenly incorporate into their genomes during replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27281742_206-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27281742-206\">&#91;206&#93;</a></sup> The life-cycle of the virus is then halted because the newly synthesised DNA is inactive. This is because these analogues lack the <a href=\"/wiki/Hydroxyl\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hydroxyl\">hydroxyl</a> groups, which, along with <a href=\"/wiki/Phosphorus\" title=\"Phosphorus\">phosphorus</a> atoms, link together to form the strong \"backbone\" of the DNA molecule. This is called DNA <a href=\"/wiki/Chain_termination\" title=\"Chain termination\">chain termination</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15592828_207-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15592828-207\">&#91;207&#93;</a></sup> Examples of nucleoside analogues are <a href=\"/wiki/Aciclovir\" title=\"Aciclovir\">aciclovir</a> for Herpes simplex virus infections and <a href=\"/wiki/Lamivudine\" title=\"Lamivudine\">lamivudine</a> for HIV and hepatitis B virus infections. Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid6355051_208-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid6355051-208\">&#91;208&#93;</a></sup>\nOther antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle. HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the <a href=\"/wiki/HIV-1_protease\" title=\"HIV-1 protease\">HIV-1 protease</a> for it to become fully infectious. There is a large class of drugs called <a href=\"/wiki/Protease_inhibitors\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Protease inhibitors\">protease inhibitors</a> that inactivate this enzyme.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid21430338_209-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid21430338-209\">&#91;209&#93;</a></sup> There are around thirteen classes of antiviral drugs each targeting different viruses or stages of viral replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27281742_206-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27281742-206\">&#91;206&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80% of people infected, the disease is chronic, and without treatment, they are <a href=\"/wiki/Infection\" title=\"Infection\">infected</a> for the remainder of their lives. There are effective treatments that use <a href=\"/wiki/Direct-acting_antivirals\" title=\"Direct-acting antivirals\">direct-acting antivirals</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28319996_210-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28319996-210\">&#91;210&#93;</a></sup> The treatment of chronic <a href=\"/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier\" title=\"Asymptomatic carrier\">carriers</a> of the hepatitis B virus has also been developed by using similar strategies that include lamivudine and other anti-viral drugs.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32102898_211-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32102898-211\">&#91;211&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Infection_in_other_species\">Infection in other species</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27\" title=\"Edit section: Infection in other species\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>Viruses infect all cellular life and, although viruses occur universally, each cellular species has its own specific range that often infects only that species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-212\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-212\">&#91;212&#93;</a></sup> Some viruses, called <a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">satellites</a>, can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18690211-36\">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Animal_viruses\">Animal viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28\" title=\"Edit section: Animal viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Animal_virus\" title=\"Animal virus\">Animal virus</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Veterinary_virology\" title=\"Veterinary virology\">Veterinary virology</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are important pathogens of livestock. Diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease and <a href=\"/wiki/Bluetongue\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bluetongue\">bluetongue</a> are caused by viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18035428_213-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18035428-213\">&#91;213&#93;</a></sup> Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, are susceptible to serious viral infections. <a href=\"/wiki/Canine_parvovirus\" title=\"Canine parvovirus\">Canine parvovirus</a> is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups.<sup id=\"cite_ref-214\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-214\">&#91;214&#93;</a></sup> Like all <a href=\"/wiki/Invertebrates\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Invertebrates\">invertebrates</a>, the honey bee is susceptible to many viral infections.<sup id=\"cite_ref-215\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-215\">&#91;215&#93;</a></sup> Most viruses co-exist harmlessly in their host and cause no signs or symptoms of disease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock-4\">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Plant_viruses\">Plant viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29\" title=\"Edit section: Plant viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Plant_virus\" title=\"Plant virus\">Plant virus</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png/220px-Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"191\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png/330px-Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png/440px-Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"650\" data-file-height=\"565\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div><a href=\"/wiki/Capsicum\" title=\"Capsicum\">Peppers</a> infected by mild mottle virus</div></div></div>\n<p>There are many types of plant viruses, but often they cause only a loss of <a href=\"/wiki/Crop_yield\" title=\"Crop yield\">yield</a>, and it is not economically viable to try to control them. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms, known as <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vector (epidemiology)\">vectors</a>. These are usually insects, but some fungi, <a href=\"/wiki/Nematode\" title=\"Nematode\">nematode worms</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Protozoa\" title=\"Protozoa\">single-celled organisms</a>, and parasitic plants are vectors.<sup id=\"cite_ref-216\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-216\">&#91;216&#93;</a></sup> When control of plant virus infections is considered economical, for perennial fruits, for example, efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds.<sup id=\"cite_ref-217\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-217\">&#91;217&#93;</a></sup> Plant viruses cannot infect humans and other animals because they can reproduce only in living plant cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-218\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-218\">&#91;218&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Originally from Peru, the potato has become a staple crop worldwide.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid24925679_219-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid24925679-219\">&#91;219&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Potato_virus_Y\" title=\"Potato virus Y\">potato virus Y</a> causes disease in potatoes and related species including tomatoes and peppers. In the 1980s, this virus acquired economical importance when it proved difficult to control in seed potato crops. Transmitted by <a href=\"/wiki/Aphid\" title=\"Aphid\">aphids</a>, this virus can reduce crop yields by up to 80 per cent, causing significant losses to potato yields.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31559020_220-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31559020-220\">&#91;220&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so-called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots. This stops the infection from spreading.<sup id=\"cite_ref-221\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-221\">&#91;221&#93;</a></sup> RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants.<sup id=\"cite_ref-222\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-222\">&#91;222&#93;</a></sup> When they are infected, plants often produce natural disinfectants that kill viruses, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Salicylic_acid\" title=\"Salicylic acid\">salicylic acid</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Nitric_oxide\" title=\"Nitric oxide\">nitric oxide</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species\" title=\"Reactive oxygen species\">reactive oxygen molecules</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-223\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-223\">&#91;223&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have applications in both <a href=\"/wiki/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\">biotechnology</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Nanotechnology\" title=\"Nanotechnology\">nanotechnology</a>. The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems. Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology.<sup id=\"cite_ref-LomonossoffGP_224-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LomonossoffGP-224\">&#91;224&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bacterial_viruses\">Bacterial viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30\" title=\"Edit section: Bacterial viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophage\" title=\"Bacteriophage\">Bacteriophage</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"An electron micrograph showing a portion of a bacterium covered with viruses\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/170px-Phage.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"199\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/255px-Phage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/340px-Phage.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1480\" data-file-height=\"1733\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Transmission electron micrograph of multiple bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell wall</div></div></div>\n<p>Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments\u2014there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria,<sup id=\"cite_ref-225\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-225\">&#91;225&#93;</a></sup> reaching levels of 250,000,000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater.<sup id=\"cite_ref-226\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-226\">&#91;226&#93;</a></sup> These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to <a href=\"/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)\" title=\"Receptor (biochemistry)\">surface receptor molecules</a> and then entering the cell. Within a short amount of time, in some cases, just minutes, bacterial <a href=\"/wiki/Polymerase\" title=\"Polymerase\">polymerase</a> starts translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell, helper proteins, which help assembly of new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis. Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane, and, in the case of the <a href=\"/wiki/T4_phage\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"T4 phage\">T4 phage</a>, in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages could be released.<sup id=\"cite_ref-227\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-227\">&#91;227&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called <a href=\"/wiki/Restriction_endonucleases\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Restriction endonucleases\">restriction endonucleases</a>, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-228\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-228\">&#91;228&#93;</a></sup> Bacteria also contain a system that uses <a href=\"/wiki/CRISPR\" title=\"CRISPR\">CRISPR</a> sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block the virus's replication through a form of <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_interference\" title=\"RNA interference\">RNA interference</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-229\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-229\">&#91;229&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-230\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-230\">&#91;230&#93;</a></sup> This genetic system provides bacteria with <a href=\"/wiki/Immunity_(medical)\" title=\"Immunity (medical)\">acquired immunity</a> to infection.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27234458_231-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27234458-231\">&#91;231&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Archaeal_viruses\">Archaeal viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31\" title=\"Edit section: Archaeal viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Archaeal_virus\" title=\"Archaeal virus\">Archaeal virus</a></div>\n<p>Some viruses replicate within <a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">archaea</a>: these are DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Lawrence_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lawrence-7\">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Prangishvili_68-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Prangishvili-68\">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup> These viruses have been studied in most detail in the <a href=\"/wiki/Thermophile\" title=\"Thermophile\">thermophilic</a> archaea, particularly the orders <a href=\"/wiki/Sulfolobales\" title=\"Sulfolobales\">Sulfolobales</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Thermoproteales\" title=\"Thermoproteales\">Thermoproteales</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-232\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-232\">&#91;232&#93;</a></sup> Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from <a href=\"/wiki/Repetitive_DNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Repetitive DNA\">repetitive DNA</a> sequences within archaean genomes that are related to the genes of the viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-233\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-233\">&#91;233&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-234\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-234\">&#91;234&#93;</a></sup> Most archaea have CRISPR\u2013Cas systems as an adaptive defence against viruses. These enable archaea to retain sections of viral DNA, which are then used to target and eliminate subsequent infections by the virus using a process similar to RNA interference.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid24909109_235-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid24909109-235\">&#91;235&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_in_aquatic_ecosystems\">Role in aquatic ecosystems</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32\" title=\"Edit section: Role in aquatic ecosystems\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Marine virus\">Marine virus</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16984643-2\">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> There are about ten million of them in a teaspoon of seawater.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31749771_236-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31749771-236\">&#91;236&#93;</a></sup> Most of these viruses are <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophages\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bacteriophages\">bacteriophages</a> infecting heterotrophic bacteria and <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanophages\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cyanophages\">cyanophages</a> infecting cyanobacteria and they are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid30443861_237-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid30443861-237\">&#91;237&#93;</a></sup>\nBacteriophages are harmless to plants and animals, and are essential to the regulation of marine and freshwater ecosystems<sup id=\"cite_ref-238\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-238\">&#91;238&#93;</a></sup>  are important mortality agents of <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>, the base of the <a href=\"/wiki/Foodchain\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Foodchain\">foodchain</a> in aquatic environments.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16163346_239-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16163346-239\">&#91;239&#93;</a></sup> They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are one of the most important mechanisms of <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_cycle\" title=\"Carbon cycle\">recycling carbon</a> and nutrient cycling in marine environments. The organic molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth, in a process known as the <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shunt\" title=\"Viral shunt\">viral shunt</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-240\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-240\">&#91;240&#93;</a></sup> In particular, lysis of bacteria by viruses has been shown to enhance nitrogen cycling and stimulate phytoplankton growth.<sup id=\"cite_ref-241\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-241\">&#91;241&#93;</a></sup>  Viral activity may also affect the <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_pump\" title=\"Biological pump\">biological pump</a>, the process whereby <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon\" title=\"Carbon\">carbon</a> is <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_sequestration\" title=\"Carbon sequestration\">sequestered</a> in the deep ocean.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Microorganisms constitute more than 90% of the biomass in the sea. It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20% of this biomass each day and that there are 10 to 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27572161_243-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27572161-243\">&#91;243&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are also major agents responsible for the destruction of <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a> including <a href=\"/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom\" title=\"Harmful algal bloom\">harmful algal blooms</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-244\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-244\">&#91;244&#93;</a></sup>\nThe number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>In January 2018, scientists reported that 800&#160;million viruses, mainly of marine origin, are deposited daily from the <a href=\"/wiki/Earth\" title=\"Earth\">Earth</a><span class=\"nowrap\" style=\"padding-left:0.1em;\">&#39;s</span> <a href=\"/wiki/Atmosphere\" title=\"Atmosphere\">atmosphere</a> onto every square meter of the planet's surface, as the result of a global atmospheric stream of viruses, circulating above the weather system but below the altitude of usual airline travel, distributing viruses around the planet.<sup id=\"cite_ref-NYT-20180413_245-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NYT-20180413-245\">&#91;245&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-ISME-2018_246-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISME-2018-246\">&#91;246&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Like any organism, <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_mammal\" title=\"Marine mammal\">marine mammals</a> are susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of <a href=\"/wiki/Harbor_seal\" title=\"Harbor seal\">harbour seals</a> were killed in Europe by <a href=\"/wiki/Phocine_distemper_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phocine distemper virus\">phocine distemper virus</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-247\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-247\">&#91;247&#93;</a></sup> Many other viruses, including <a href=\"/wiki/Calicivirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Calicivirus\">caliciviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Herpesvirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Herpesvirus\">herpesviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Adenovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adenovirus\">adenoviruses</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Parvovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parvovirus\">parvoviruses</a>, circulate in marine mammal populations.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>In December 2022, scientists reported the first observation of <a href=\"/wiki/Virovore\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Virovore\">virovory</a> via an experiment on pond water containing <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorovirus\" title=\"Chlorovirus\">chlorovirus</a>, which commonly infects green algae in freshwater environments. When all other microbial food sources were removed from the water, the <a href=\"/wiki/Ciliate\" title=\"Ciliate\">ciliate</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Halteria\" title=\"Halteria\">Halteria</a> was observed to have increased in number due to the active consumption of chlorovirus as a food source instead of its typical <a href=\"/wiki/Bacterivore\" title=\"Bacterivore\">bacterivore</a> diet.<sup id=\"cite_ref-New_Virovore_248-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-New_Virovore-248\">&#91;248&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-First_Virovore_249-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_Virovore-249\">&#91;249&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_in_evolution\">Role in evolution</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33\" title=\"Edit section: Role in evolution\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer\" title=\"Horizontal gene transfer\">Horizontal gene transfer</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species, which increases <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_diversity\" title=\"Genetic diversity\">genetic diversity</a> and drives evolution.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Canchaya_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Canchaya-9\">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Broecker2019_250-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Broecker2019-250\">&#91;250&#93;</a></sup> It is thought that viruses played a central role in early evolution, before the diversification of the <a href=\"/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Last universal ancestor\">last universal common ancestor</a> into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11536914_251-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11536914-251\">&#91;251&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34\" title=\"Edit section: Applications\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_sciences_and_medicine\">Life sciences and medicine</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35\" title=\"Edit section: Life sciences and medicine\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_research.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/170px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"241\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/255px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/340px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1966\" data-file-height=\"2786\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_research.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Scientist studying the <a href=\"/wiki/H5N1\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"H5N1\">H5N1</a> influenza virus</div></div></div>\n<p>Viruses are important to the study of <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_biology\" title=\"Molecular biology\">molecular</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_biology\" title=\"Cell biology\">cell biology</a> as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-252\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-252\">&#91;252&#93;</a></sup> The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology.<sup id=\"cite_ref-253\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-253\">&#91;253&#93;</a></sup> For example, viruses have been useful in the study of <a href=\"/wiki/Genetics\" title=\"Genetics\">genetics</a> and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_genetics\" title=\"Molecular genetics\">molecular genetics</a>, such as <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_replication\" title=\"DNA replication\">DNA replication</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Transcription (genetics)\">transcription</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"RNA processing\">RNA processing</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Translation_(genetics)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Translation (genetics)\">translation</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Protein\" title=\"Protein\">protein</a> transport, and <a href=\"/wiki/Immunology\" title=\"Immunology\">immunology</a>.\n</p><p>Geneticists often use viruses as <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Vector (molecular biology)\">vectors</a> to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Similarly, <a href=\"/wiki/Virotherapy\" title=\"Virotherapy\">virotherapy</a> uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in <a href=\"/wiki/Gene_therapy\" title=\"Gene therapy\">gene therapy</a>. Eastern European scientists have used <a href=\"/wiki/Phage_therapy\" title=\"Phage therapy\">phage therapy</a> as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of <a href=\"/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antibiotic resistance\">antibiotic resistance</a> now found in some pathogenic bacteria.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16258815_254-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16258815-254\">&#91;254&#93;</a></sup>\nThe expression of heterologous proteins by viruses is the basis of several manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of various proteins such as vaccine <a href=\"/wiki/Antigen\" title=\"Antigen\">antigens</a> and antibodies. Industrial processes have been recently developed using viral vectors and several pharmaceutical proteins are currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.<sup id=\"cite_ref-GlebaYY_255-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GlebaYY-255\">&#91;255&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Virotherapy\">Virotherapy</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36\" title=\"Edit section: Virotherapy\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Virotherapy\" title=\"Virotherapy\">Virotherapy</a></div>\n<p>Virotherapy involves the use of genetically modified viruses to treat diseases.<sup id=\"cite_ref-256\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-256\">&#91;256&#93;</a></sup> Viruses have been modified by scientists to reproduce in cancer cells and destroy them but not infect healthy cells. <a href=\"/wiki/Talimogene_laherparepvec\" title=\"Talimogene laherparepvec\">Talimogene laherparepvec</a> (T-VEC), for example, is a modified <a href=\"/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus\" title=\"Herpes simplex virus\">herpes simplex virus</a> that has had a gene, which is required for viruses to replicate in healthy cells, deleted and replaced with a human gene (<a href=\"/wiki/GM-CSF\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"GM-CSF\">GM-CSF</a>) that stimulates immunity. When this virus infects cancer cells, it destroys them and in doing so the presence the GM-CSF gene attracts <a href=\"/wiki/Dendritic_cells\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dendritic cells\">dendritic cells</a> from the surrounding tissues of the body. The dendritic cells process the dead cancer cells and present components of them to other cells of the <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_system\" title=\"Immune system\">immune system</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-257\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-257\">&#91;257&#93;</a></sup> Having completed successful <a href=\"/wiki/Clinical_trials\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Clinical trials\">clinical trials</a>, the virus gained approval for the treatment of <a href=\"/wiki/Melanoma\" title=\"Melanoma\">melanoma</a> in late 2015.<sup id=\"cite_ref-258\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-258\">&#91;258&#93;</a></sup> Viruses that have been reprogrammed to kill cancer cells are called <a href=\"/wiki/Oncolytic_virus\" title=\"Oncolytic virus\">oncolytic viruses</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-259\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-259\">&#91;259&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Materials_science_and_nanotechnology\">Materials science and nanotechnology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37\" title=\"Edit section: Materials science and nanotechnology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-260\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-260\">&#91;260&#93;</a></sup> From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles.\nTheir surface carries specific tools that enable them to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface are precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine.<sup id=\"cite_ref-fischlechner_261-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fischlechner-261\">&#91;261&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Because of their size, shape, and well-defined chemical structures, viruses have been used as templates for organising materials on the nanoscale. Recent examples include work at the <a href=\"/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Naval Research Laboratory\">Naval Research Laboratory</a> in Washington, D.C., using <a href=\"/wiki/Cowpea_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Cowpea mosaic virus\">Cowpea mosaic virus</a> (CPMV) particles to amplify signals in <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_microarray\" title=\"DNA microarray\">DNA microarray</a> based sensors. In this application, the virus particles separate the <a href=\"/wiki/Fluorescence\" title=\"Fluorescence\">fluorescent</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Dye\" title=\"Dye\">dyes</a> used for signalling to prevent the formation of non-fluorescent <a href=\"/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)\" title=\"Dimer (chemistry)\">dimers</a> that act as <a href=\"/wiki/Quenching_(fluorescence)\" title=\"Quenching (fluorescence)\">quenchers</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-262\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-262\">&#91;262&#93;</a></sup> Another example is the use of CPMV as a nanoscale breadboard for molecular electronics.<sup id=\"cite_ref-263\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-263\">&#91;263&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Synthetic_viruses\">Synthetic viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38\" title=\"Edit section: Synthetic viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Many viruses can be synthesised de novo (\"from scratch\").  The first synthetic virus was created in 2002.<sup id=\"cite_ref-264\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-264\">&#91;264&#93;</a></sup> Although somewhat of a misconception, it is not the actual virus that is synthesised, but rather its DNA genome (in case of a DNA virus), or a <a href=\"/wiki/CDNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"CDNA\">cDNA</a> copy of its genome (in case of RNA viruses). For many virus families the naked synthetic DNA or RNA (once enzymatically converted back from the synthetic cDNA) is infectious when introduced into a cell. That is, they contain all the necessary information to produce new viruses. This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Coleman_265-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Coleman-265\">&#91;265&#93;</a></sup> The ability to synthesise viruses has far-reaching consequences, since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct, as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and <a href=\"/wiki/Permissive\" title=\"Permissive\">permissive</a> cells are available. As of June 2021, the full-length genome sequences of 11,464 different viruses, including smallpox, are publicly available in an online database maintained by the <a href=\"/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health\" title=\"National Institutes of Health\">National Institutes of Health</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-266\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-266\">&#91;266&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Weapons\">Weapons</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39\" title=\"Edit section: Weapons\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_warfare\" title=\"Biological warfare\">Biological warfare</a></div>\n<p>The ability of viruses to cause devastating epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponised for <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_warfare\" title=\"Biological warfare\">biological warfare</a>. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous <a href=\"/wiki/Spanish_flu\" title=\"Spanish flu\">1918 influenza</a> virus in a laboratory.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid30152475_267-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid30152475-267\">&#91;267&#93;</a></sup>\nThe smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. There are only two centres in the world authorised by the WHO to keep stocks of smallpox virus: the <a href=\"/wiki/State_Research_Center_of_Virology_and_Biotechnology_VECTOR\" title=\"State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR\">State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR</a> in Russia and the <a href=\"/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> in the United States.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18844596-268\">&#91;268&#93;</a></sup> It may be used as a weapon,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18844596-268\">&#91;268&#93;</a></sup> as the vaccine for smallpox sometimes had severe side-effects, it is no longer used routinely in any country. Thus, much of the modern human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox and would be vulnerable to the virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18844596-268\">&#91;268&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40\" title=\"Edit section: See also\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1147244281\">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cross-species_transmission\" title=\"Cross-species transmission\">Cross-species transmission</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glossary_of_virology\" title=\"Glossary of virology\">Glossary of virology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Law_of_declining_virulence\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Law of declining virulence\">Law of declining virulence</a>&#160;\u2013 Disproved hypothesis of epidemiologist Theobald Smith</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-cellular_life\" title=\"Non-cellular life\">Non-cellular life</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrozyme\" title=\"Retrozyme\">Retrozyme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Theory_of_virulence\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Theory of virulence\">Theory of virulence</a>&#160;\u2013 Theory by biologist Paul W. Ewald</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_metagenomics\" title=\"Viral metagenomics\">Viral metagenomics</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viroplasm\" title=\"Viroplasm\">Viroplasm</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Zoonosis\" title=\"Zoonosis\">Zoonosis</a></li></ul>\n</div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41\" title=\"Edit section: References\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42\" title=\"Edit section: Notes\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1011085734\">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NG-20200415-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NG-20200415_1-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1133582631\">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:\"\\\"\"\"\\\"\"\"'\"\"'\"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg\")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg\")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg\")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg\")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id=\"CITEREFWu2020\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Wu KJ (15 April 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/factors-allow-viruses-infect-humans-coronavirus/\">\"There are more viruses than stars in the universe. Why do only some infect us? \u2013 More than a quadrillion quadrillion individual viruses exist on Earth, but most are not poised to hop into humans. Can we find the ones that are?\"</a>. <i><a href=\"/wiki/National_Geographic_Society\" title=\"National Geographic Society\">National Geographic Society</a></i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&amp;rft.atitle=There+are+more+viruses+than+stars+in+the+universe.+Why+do+only+some+infect+us%3F+%E2%80%93+More+than+a+quadrillion+quadrillion+individual+viruses+exist+on+Earth%2C+but+most+are+not+poised+to+hop+into+humans.+Can+we+find+the+ones+that+are%3F&amp;rft.date=2020-04-15&amp;rft.aulast=Wu&amp;rft.aufirst=KJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2F2020%2F04%2Ffactors-allow-viruses-infect-humans-coronavirus%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16984643-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKooninSenkevichDolja2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Koonin EV, Senkevich TG, Dolja VV (September 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594570\">\"The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells\"</a>. <i>Biology Direct</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 29. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1745-6150-1-29\">10.1186/1745-6150-1-29</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594570\">1594570</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16984643\">16984643</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biology+Direct&amp;rft.atitle=The+ancient+Virus+World+and+evolution+of+cells&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=29&amp;rft.date=2006-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1594570%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16984643&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1745-6150-1-29&amp;rft.aulast=Koonin&amp;rft.aufirst=EV&amp;rft.au=Senkevich%2C+TG&amp;rft.au=Dolja%2C+VV&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1594570&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NYT-20210226-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NYT-20210226_3-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFZimmer2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Carl_Zimmer\" title=\"Carl Zimmer\">Zimmer C</a> (26 February 2021). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/26/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-alive-dead.html\">\"The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it\"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Archived from <span class=\"cs1-lock-limited\" title=\"Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/26/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-alive-dead.html\">the original</a></span> on 28 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=The+Secret+Life+of+a+Coronavirus+-+An+oily%2C+100-nanometer-wide+bubble+of+genes+has+killed+more+than+two+million+people+and+reshaped+the+world.+Scientists+don%27t+quite+know+what+to+make+of+it.&amp;rft.date=2021-02-26&amp;rft.aulast=Zimmer&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F02%2F26%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fcoronavirus-alive-dead.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dimmock-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 4</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ictv2021-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ictv2021_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ictv2021_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ictv2021_5-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ictv.global/taxonomy\">\"Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release\"</a>. <i>talk.ictvonline.org</i>. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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March 2015.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Virulent%2C+adj.&amp;rft.btitle=OED+Online&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2015-03&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virulent\">\"virulent\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=virulent&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dvirulent&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBuschardThon2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Buschard K, Thon R (2003). \"Diabetic Animal Models\".  In Hau J, Van Hoosier Jr GL (eds.). <i>Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science</i>. Animal Models. Vol.&#160;II (Second&#160;ed.). CRC Press. pp.&#160;163, 166.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Diabetic+Animal+Models&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Laboratory+Animal+Science&amp;rft.series=Animal+Models&amp;rft.pages=163%2C+166&amp;rft.edition=Second&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Buschard&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rft.au=Thon%2C+R&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">William T. Stearn: <i>Botanical Latin. History, Grammar, Syntax, Terminology and Vocabulary.</i> David &amp; Charles, third edition, 1983. Quote: \"Virus: virus (s.n. II), <i>gen. sing.</i> viri, <i>nom. pl.</i> vira, <i>gen. pl.</i> v\u012brorum (to be distinguished from <i>virorum</i>, of men).\"</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=viral\">\"viral\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=viral&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dviral&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary2-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary2_21-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virion\">\"virion\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=virion&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dvirion&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCasjens2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Casjens S (2010).  Mahy BW, Van Regenmortel MH (eds.). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Boston: Academic Press. p.&#160;167. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pages=167&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rft.aulast=Casjens&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16494962-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16494962_23-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFIyerBalajiKooninAravind2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Iyer LM, Balaji S, Koonin EV, Aravind L (April 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://zenodo.org/record/1259447\">\"Evolutionary genomics of nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses\"</a>. <i>Virus Research</i>. <b>117</b> (1): 156\u201384. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2006.01.009\">10.1016/j.virusres.2006.01.009</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16494962\">16494962</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+genomics+of+nucleo-cytoplasmic+large+DNA+viruses&amp;rft.volume=117&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=156-84&amp;rft.date=2006-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2006.01.009&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16494962&amp;rft.aulast=Iyer&amp;rft.aufirst=LM&amp;rft.au=Balaji%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&amp;rft.au=Aravind%2C+L&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1259447&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid20660197-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSanju\u00e1nNebotChiricoMansky2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sanju\u00e1n R, Nebot MR, Chirico N, Mansky LM, Belshaw R (October 2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937809\">\"Viral mutation rates\"</a>. <i>Journal of Virology</i>. <b>84</b> (19): 9733\u201348. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJVI.00694-10\">10.1128/JVI.00694-10</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937809\">2937809</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20660197\">20660197</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+mutation+rates&amp;rft.volume=84&amp;rft.issue=19&amp;rft.pages=9733-48&amp;rft.date=2010-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937809%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20660197&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJVI.00694-10&amp;rft.aulast=Sanju%C3%A1n&amp;rft.aufirst=R&amp;rft.au=Nebot%2C+MR&amp;rft.au=Chirico%2C+N&amp;rft.au=Mansky%2C+LM&amp;rft.au=Belshaw%2C+R&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937809&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid31142823-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid31142823_25-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKrupovicDoljaKoonin2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Krupovic M, Dolja VV, Koonin EV (July 2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02557191/file/Krupovic_NRMICRO-19-022_MS_v3_clean.pdf\">\"Origin of viruses: primordial replicators recruiting capsids from hosts\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>17</b> (7): 449\u2013458. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41579-019-0205-6\">10.1038/s41579-019-0205-6</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31142823\">31142823</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256744818\">256744818</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Origin+of+viruses%3A+primordial+replicators+recruiting+capsids+from+hosts&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=449-458&amp;rft.date=2019-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256744818%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31142823&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41579-019-0205-6&amp;rft.aulast=Krupovic&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Dolja%2C+VV&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fpasteur-02557191%2Ffile%2FKrupovic_NRMICRO-19-022_MS_v3_clean.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dimmock16-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 16</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 11</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMahyRegenmortel2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mahy WJ, Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Oxford: Academic Press. p.&#160;24. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 810</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMcClintock1950\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">McClintock B (June 1950). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063197\">\"The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>36</b> (6): 344\u201355. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PNAS...36..344M\">1950PNAS...36..344M</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.36.6.344\">10.1073/pnas.36.6.344</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063197\">1063197</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15430309\">15430309</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=The+origin+and+behavior+of+mutable+loci+in+maize&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=344-55&amp;rft.date=1950-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063197%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15430309&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.36.6.344&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PNAS...36..344M&amp;rft.aulast=McClintock&amp;rft.aufirst=B&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063197&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 11\u201312</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 55</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 791</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18764915-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18764915_34-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFTsagrisMart\u00ednez_de_AlbaGozmanovaKalantidis2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tsagris EM, Mart\u00ednez de Alba AE, Gozmanova M, Kalantidis K (November 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x\">\"Viroids\"</a>. <i>Cellular Microbiology</i>. <b>10</b> (11): 2168\u201379. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x\">10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01231.x</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18764915\">18764915</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221581424\">221581424</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cellular+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Viroids&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=2168-79&amp;rft.date=2008-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221581424%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18764915&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x&amp;rft.aulast=Tsagris&amp;rft.aufirst=EM&amp;rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez+de+Alba%2C+AE&amp;rft.au=Gozmanova%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Kalantidis%2C+K&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 460</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18690211-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLa_ScolaDesnuesPagnierRobert2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">La Scola B, Desnues C, Pagnier I, Robert C, Barrassi L, Fournous G,  et&#160;al. (September 2008). \"The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>455</b> (7209): 100\u201304. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.455..100L\">2008Natur.455..100L</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07218\">10.1038/nature07218</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18690211\">18690211</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4422249\">4422249</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=The+virophage+as+a+unique+parasite+of+the+giant+mimivirus&amp;rft.volume=455&amp;rft.issue=7209&amp;rft.pages=100-04&amp;rft.date=2008-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07218&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4422249%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18690211&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.455..100L&amp;rft.aulast=La+Scola&amp;rft.aufirst=B&amp;rft.au=Desnues%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Pagnier%2C+I&amp;rft.au=Robert%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Barrassi%2C+L&amp;rft.au=Fournous%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Merchat%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Suzan-Monti%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Forterre%2C+P&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+E&amp;rft.au=Raoult%2C+D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 777</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock pp. 55\u201357</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMahyVan_Regenmortel2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mahy WJ, Van Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Oxford: Academic Press. p.&#160;28. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=28&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mahy_Gen_26-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMahyRegenmortel2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mahy WJ, Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Oxford: Academic Press. p.&#160;26. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=26&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock pp. 15\u201316</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid17914905-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17914905_42-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHolmes2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Holmes EC (October 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1994994\">\"Viral evolution in the genomic age\"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>5</b> (10): e278. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0050278\">10.1371/journal.pbio.0050278</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1994994\">1994994</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17914905\">17914905</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+evolution+in+the+genomic+age&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=e278&amp;rft.date=2007-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1994994%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17914905&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0050278&amp;rft.aulast=Holmes&amp;rft.aufirst=EC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1994994&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid20010599-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20010599_43-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWimmerMuellerTumpeyTaubenberger2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wimmer E, Mueller S, Tumpey TM, Taubenberger JK (December 2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819212\">\"Synthetic viruses: a new opportunity to understand and prevent viral disease\"</a>. <i>Nature Biotechnology</i>. <b>27</b> (12): 1163\u201372. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnbt.1593\">10.1038/nbt.1593</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819212\">2819212</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20010599\">20010599</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Biotechnology&amp;rft.atitle=Synthetic+viruses%3A+a+new+opportunity+to+understand+and+prevent+viral+disease&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=1163-72&amp;rft.date=2009-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2819212%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20010599&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnbt.1593&amp;rft.aulast=Wimmer&amp;rft.aufirst=E&amp;rft.au=Mueller%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Tumpey%2C+TM&amp;rft.au=Taubenberger%2C+JK&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2819212&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18473699-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18473699_44-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHorn2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Horn M (2008). \"Chlamydiae as symbionts in eukaryotes\". <i>Annual Review of Microbiology</i>. <b>62</b>: 113\u201331. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.62.081307.162818\">10.1146/annurev.micro.62.081307.162818</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473699\">18473699</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Chlamydiae+as+symbionts+in+eukaryotes&amp;rft.volume=62&amp;rft.pages=113-31&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.62.081307.162818&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18473699&amp;rft.aulast=Horn&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid19016440-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19016440_45-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAmmermanBeier-SextonAzad2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ammerman NC, Beier-Sexton M, Azad AF (November 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2725428\">\"Laboratory maintenance of Rickettsia rickettsii\"</a>. <i>Current Protocols in Microbiology</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 3A.5.1\u20133A.5.21. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780471729259.mc03a05s11\">10.1002/9780471729259.mc03a05s11</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471729259\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0471729259\"><bdi>978-0471729259</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2725428\">2725428</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19016440\">19016440</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Protocols+in+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+maintenance+of+Rickettsia+rickettsii&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=3A.5.1-3A.5.21&amp;rft.date=2008-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2725428%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19016440&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780471729259.mc03a05s11&amp;rft.isbn=978-0471729259&amp;rft.aulast=Ammerman&amp;rft.aufirst=NC&amp;rft.au=Beier-Sexton%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Azad%2C+AF&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2725428&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Krasner p. 98</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Collier3355-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Collier3355_47-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Collier3355_47-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 33\u201355</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 33\u201337</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid1715774-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid1715774_49-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKiselevShermanTsuprun1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kiselev NA, Sherman MB, Tsuprun VL (1990). \"Negative staining of proteins\". <i>Electron Microscopy Reviews</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 43\u201372. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" 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href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 40</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid14019094-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid14019094_51-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCasparKlug1962\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Caspar DL, Klug A (1962). \"Physical principles in the construction of regular viruses\". <i>Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology</i>. <b>27</b>: 1\u201324. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fsqb.1962.027.001.005\">10.1101/sqb.1962.027.001.005</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14019094\">14019094</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Symposia+on+Quantitative+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Physical+principles+in+the+construction+of+regular+viruses&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.pages=1-24&amp;rft.date=1962&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fsqb.1962.027.001.005&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14019094&amp;rft.aulast=Caspar&amp;rft.aufirst=DL&amp;rft.au=Klug%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid13309339-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid13309339_52-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCrickWatson1956\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Crick FH, Watson JD (March 1956). \"Structure of small viruses\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>177</b> (4506): 473\u201375. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1956Natur.177..473C\">1956Natur.177..473C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F177473a0\">10.1038/177473a0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13309339\">13309339</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5740221\">5740221</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Structure+of+small+viruses&amp;rft.volume=177&amp;rft.issue=4506&amp;rft.pages=473-75&amp;rft.date=1956-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F177473a0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5740221%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13309339&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1956Natur.177..473C&amp;rft.aulast=Crick&amp;rft.aufirst=FH&amp;rft.au=Watson%2C+JD&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties_53-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFalvoWashburnSuperfineFinch1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Falvo MR, Washburn S, Superfine R, Finch M, Brooks FP, Chi V, Taylor RM (March 1997). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1184522\">\"Manipulation of individual viruses: friction and mechanical properties\"</a>. <i>Biophysical Journal</i>. <b>72</b> (3): 1396\u2013403. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997BpJ....72.1396F\">1997BpJ....72.1396F</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2897%2978786-1\">10.1016/S0006-3495(97)78786-1</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1184522\">1184522</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9138585\">9138585</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biophysical+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Manipulation+of+individual+viruses%3A+friction+and+mechanical+properties&amp;rft.volume=72&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=1396-403&amp;rft.date=1997-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1184522%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9138585&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2897%2978786-1&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997BpJ....72.1396F&amp;rft.aulast=Falvo&amp;rft.aufirst=MR&amp;rft.au=Washburn%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Superfine%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Finch%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Brooks%2C+FP&amp;rft.au=Chi%2C+V&amp;rft.au=Taylor%2C+RM&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1184522&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-virus-AFM-imaging-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-virus-AFM-imaging_54-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKuznetsovMalkinLucasPlomp2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kuznetsov YG, Malkin AJ, Lucas RW, Plomp M, McPherson A (September 2001). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-82-9-2025\">\"Imaging of viruses by atomic force microscopy\"</a>. <i>The Journal of General Virology</i>. <b>82</b> (Pt 9): 2025\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-82-9-2025\">10.1099/0022-1317-82-9-2025</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11514711\">11514711</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Imaging+of+viruses+by+atomic+force+microscopy&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=Pt+9&amp;rft.pages=2025-34&amp;rft.date=2001-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2F0022-1317-82-9-2025&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11514711&amp;rft.aulast=Kuznetsov&amp;rft.aufirst=YG&amp;rft.au=Malkin%2C+AJ&amp;rft.au=Lucas%2C+RW&amp;rft.au=Plomp%2C+M&amp;rft.au=McPherson%2C+A&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252F0022-1317-82-9-2025&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 37</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFStrausBo2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Straus SK, Bo HE (2018). \"Filamentous Bacteriophage Proteins and Assembly\". <i>Sub-Cellular Biochemistry</i>. <b>88</b>: 261\u2013279. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-10-8456-0_12\">10.1007/978-981-10-8456-0_12</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-8455-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-981-10-8455-3\"><bdi>978-981-10-8455-3</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29900501\">29900501</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sub-Cellular+Biochemistry&amp;rft.atitle=Filamentous+Bacteriophage+Proteins+and+Assembly&amp;rft.volume=88&amp;rft.pages=261-279&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29900501&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-10-8456-0_12&amp;rft.isbn=978-981-10-8455-3&amp;rft.aulast=Straus&amp;rft.aufirst=SK&amp;rft.au=Bo%2C+HE&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 40, 42</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27045511-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27045511_58-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWilson2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wilson DP (2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4821576\">\"Protruding Features of Viral Capsids Are Clustered on Icosahedral Great Circles\"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>11</b> (4): e0152319. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1152319W\">2016PLoSO..1152319W</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0152319\">10.1371/journal.pone.0152319</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4821576\">4821576</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27045511\">27045511</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=Protruding+Features+of+Viral+Capsids+Are+Clustered+on+Icosahedral+Great+Circles&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=e0152319&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4821576%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27045511&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0152319&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PLoSO..1152319W&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson&amp;rft.aufirst=DP&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4821576&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCasens2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Casens S (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Boston: Academic Press. pp.&#160;167\u201374. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pages=167-74&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rft.aulast=Casens&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid32580969-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid32580969_60-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFDhamaKhanTiwariSircar2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dhama K, Khan S, Tiwari R, Sircar S, Bhat S, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Rodriguez-Morales AJ (September 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7405836\">\"Coronavirus Disease 2019-COVID-19\"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>33</b> (4). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00028-20\">10.1128/CMR.00028-20</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7405836\">7405836</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32580969\">32580969</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Coronavirus+Disease+2019-COVID-19&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.date=2020-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7405836%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32580969&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00028-20&amp;rft.aulast=Dhama&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rft.au=Khan%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Tiwari%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Sircar%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Bhat%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Malik%2C+YS&amp;rft.au=Singh%2C+KP&amp;rft.au=Chaicumpa%2C+W&amp;rft.au=Bonilla-Aldana%2C+DK&amp;rft.au=Rodriguez-Morales%2C+AJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7405836&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 42\u201343</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRossmannMesyanzhinovArisakaLeiman2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rossmann MG, Mesyanzhinov VV, Arisaka F, Leiman PG (April 2004). \"The bacteriophage T4 DNA injection machine\". <i>Current Opinion in Structural Biology</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 171\u201380. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2004.02.001\">10.1016/j.sbi.2004.02.001</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15093831\">15093831</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=The+bacteriophage+T4+DNA+injection+machine&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=171-80&amp;rft.date=2004-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2004.02.001&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15093831&amp;rft.aulast=Rossmann&amp;rft.aufirst=MG&amp;rft.au=Mesyanzhinov%2C+VV&amp;rft.au=Arisaka%2C+F&amp;rft.au=Leiman%2C+PG&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid4322005-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid4322005_63-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLongNobelMurphyHerrmann1970\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Long GW, Nobel J, Murphy FA, Herrmann KL, Lourie B (September 1970). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC376966\">\"Experience with electron microscopy in the differential diagnosis of smallpox\"</a>. <i>Applied Microbiology</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 497\u2013504. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.20.3.497-504.1970\">10.1128/AEM.20.3.497-504.1970</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC376966\">376966</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4322005\">4322005</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Applied+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Experience+with+electron+microscopy+in+the+differential+diagnosis+of+smallpox&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=497-504&amp;rft.date=1970-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC376966%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4322005&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.20.3.497-504.1970&amp;rft.aulast=Long&amp;rft.aufirst=GW&amp;rft.au=Nobel%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+FA&amp;rft.au=Herrmann%2C+KL&amp;rft.au=Lourie%2C+B&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC376966&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Suzan-Monti2006-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Suzan-Monti2006_64-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSuzan-MontiLa_ScolaRaoult2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Suzan-Monti M, La Scola B, Raoult D (April 2006). \"Genomic and evolutionary aspects of Mimivirus\". <i>Virus Research</i>. <b>117</b> (1): 145\u201355. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2005.07.011\">10.1016/j.virusres.2005.07.011</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16181700\">16181700</a>.</cite><span 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href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3198346\">\"Distant Mimivirus relative with a larger genome highlights the fundamental features of Megaviridae\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>108</b> (42): 17486\u201391. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..10817486A\">2011PNAS..10817486A</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1110889108\">10.1073/pnas.1110889108</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3198346\">3198346</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21987820\">21987820</a>.</cite><span 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href=\"#cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPhilippeLegendreDoutreCout\u00e92013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Philippe N, Legendre M, Doutre G, Cout\u00e9 Y, Poirot O, Lescot M,  et&#160;al. 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journal cs1\">Metzner KJ (December 2006). \"Detection and significance of minority quasispecies of drug-resistant HIV-1\". <i>Journal of HIV Therapy</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 74\u201381. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17578210\">17578210</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+HIV+Therapy&amp;rft.atitle=Detection+and+significance+of+minority+quasispecies+of+drug-resistant+HIV-1&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=74-81&amp;rft.date=2006-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17578210&amp;rft.aulast=Metzner&amp;rft.aufirst=KJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Goudsmit, Jaap. Viral Sex. Oxford Univ Press, 1998. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512496-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512496-5\">978-0-19-512496-5</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512496-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/0-19-512496-0\">0-19-512496-0</a></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid10573145-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid10573145_84-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWorobeyHolmes1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Worobey M, Holmes EC (October 1999). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-80-10-2535\">\"Evolutionary aspects of recombination in RNA viruses\"</a>. <i>The Journal of General Virology</i>. <b>80</b> (10): 2535\u201343. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-80-10-2535\">10.1099/0022-1317-80-10-2535</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10573145\">10573145</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+aspects+of+recombination+in+RNA+viruses&amp;rft.volume=80&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=2535-43&amp;rft.date=1999-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2F0022-1317-80-10-2535&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10573145&amp;rft.aulast=Worobey&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Holmes%2C+EC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252F0022-1317-80-10-2535&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid15578739-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid15578739_85-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLukashev2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lukashev AN (2005). \"Role of recombination in evolution of enteroviruses\". 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+Medical+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Role+of+recombination+in+evolution+of+enteroviruses&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=157-67&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26000112%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15578739&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Frmv.457&amp;rft.aulast=Lukashev&amp;rft.aufirst=AN&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid10479778-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid10479778_86-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFUmene1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Umene K (July 1999). \"Mechanism and application of genetic recombination in herpesviruses\". <i>Reviews in Medical Virology</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 171\u201382. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-1654%28199907%2F09%299%3A3%3C171%3A%3AAID-RMV243%3E3.0.CO%3B2-A\">10.1002/(SICI)1099-1654(199907/09)9:3&#60;171::AID-RMV243&#62;3.0.CO;2-A</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10479778\">10479778</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43110533\">43110533</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+Medical+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Mechanism+and+application+of+genetic+recombination+in+herpesviruses&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=171-82&amp;rft.date=1999-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43110533%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10479778&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-1654%28199907%2F09%299%3A3%3C171%3A%3AAID-RMV243%3E3.0.CO%3B2-A&amp;rft.aulast=Umene&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, Liu W, Bi Y, Gao GF. Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol. 2016 Jun;24(6):490-502. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.03.003. Epub 2016 Mar 21. PMID: 27012512; PMCID: PMC7125511</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-88\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Barr JN, Fearns R. How RNA viruses maintain their genome integrity. J Gen Virol. 2010 Jun;91(Pt 6):1373-87. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.020818-0. Epub 2010 Mar 24. PMID: 20335491</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid26119571-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid26119571_89-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFreed2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Freed EO (August 2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6936268\">\"HIV-1 assembly, release and maturation\"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>13</b> (8): 484\u201396. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro3490\">10.1038/nrmicro3490</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6936268\">6936268</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26119571\">26119571</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=HIV-1+assembly%2C+release+and+maturation&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=484-96&amp;rft.date=2015-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6936268%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26119571&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro3490&amp;rft.aulast=Freed&amp;rft.aufirst=EO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6936268&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid29592895-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid29592895_90-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFYinRedovich2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yin J, Redovich J (June 2018). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5968458\">\"Kinetic Modeling of Virus Growth in Cells\"</a>. <i>Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews</i>. <b>82</b> (2). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.00066-17\">10.1128/MMBR.00066-17</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5968458\">5968458</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29592895\">29592895</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Kinetic+Modeling+of+Virus+Growth+in+Cells&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2018-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5968458%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29592895&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.00066-17&amp;rft.aulast=Yin&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Redovich%2C+J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5968458&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 75\u201391</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid23737062-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid23737062_92-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFM\u00e1sMelero2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">M\u00e1s V, Melero JA (2013). \"Entry of enveloped viruses into host cells: membrane fusion\". <i>Structure and Physics of Viruses</i>. Subcellular Biochemistry. Vol.&#160;68. pp.&#160;467\u201387. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6552-8_16\">10.1007/978-94-007-6552-8_16</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-6551-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-94-007-6551-1\"><bdi>978-94-007-6551-1</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7121288\">7121288</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23737062\">23737062</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Entry+of+enveloped+viruses+into+host+cells%3A+membrane+fusion&amp;rft.btitle=Structure+and+Physics+of+Viruses&amp;rft.series=Subcellular+Biochemistry&amp;rft.pages=467-87&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7121288%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23737062&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-6552-8_16&amp;rft.isbn=978-94-007-6551-1&amp;rft.aulast=M%C3%A1s&amp;rft.aufirst=V&amp;rft.au=Melero%2C+JA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 70</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBoevinkOparka2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Boevink P, Oparka KJ (August 2005). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183373\">\"Virus-host interactions during movement processes\"</a>. <i>Plant Physiology</i>. <b>138</b> (4): 1815\u201321. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.105.066761\">10.1104/pp.105.066761</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183373\">1183373</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16172094\">16172094</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&amp;rft.atitle=Virus-host+interactions+during+movement+processes&amp;rft.volume=138&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=1815-21&amp;rft.date=2005-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183373%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16172094&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.105.066761&amp;rft.aulast=Boevink&amp;rft.aufirst=P&amp;rft.au=Oparka%2C+KJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183373&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 71</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27174165-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27174165_96-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBlaas2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Blaas D (May 2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4871925\">\"Viral entry pathways: the example of common cold viruses\"</a>. <i>Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift</i>. <b>166</b> (7\u20138): 211\u201326. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10354-016-0461-2\">10.1007/s10354-016-0461-2</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4871925\">4871925</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27174165\">27174165</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wiener+Medizinische+Wochenschrift&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+entry+pathways%3A+the+example+of+common+cold+viruses&amp;rft.volume=166&amp;rft.issue=7%E2%80%938&amp;rft.pages=211-26&amp;rft.date=2016-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4871925%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27174165&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10354-016-0461-2&amp;rft.aulast=Blaas&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4871925&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid23231449-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid23231449_97-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFIsomuraStinski2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Isomura H, Stinski MF (February 2013). \"Coordination of late gene transcription of human cytomegalovirus with viral DNA synthesis: recombinant viruses as potential therapeutic vaccine candidates\". <i>Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 157\u201366. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1517%2F14728222.2013.740460\">10.1517/14728222.2013.740460</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23231449\">23231449</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11448687\">11448687</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Expert+Opinion+on+Therapeutic+Targets&amp;rft.atitle=Coordination+of+late+gene+transcription+of+human+cytomegalovirus+with+viral+DNA+synthesis%3A+recombinant+viruses+as+potential+therapeutic+vaccine+candidates&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=157-66&amp;rft.date=2013-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11448687%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23231449&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1517%2F14728222.2013.740460&amp;rft.aulast=Isomura&amp;rft.aufirst=H&amp;rft.au=Stinski%2C+MF&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" 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href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11451488\">11451488</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Transport+of+viral+proteins+to+the+apical+membranes+and+interaction+of+matrix+protein+with+glycoproteins+in+the+assembly+of+influenza+viruses&amp;rft.volume=77&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=61-69&amp;rft.date=2001-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-1702%2801%2900266-0&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11451488&amp;rft.aulast=Barman&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rft.au=Ali%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Hui%2C+EK&amp;rft.au=Adhikary%2C+L&amp;rft.au=Nayak%2C+DP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-99\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 836</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-100\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock, Chapter 15, <i>Mechanisms in virus latency</i>, pp. 243\u201359</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-101\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock 185\u201387</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-102\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 118; Collier p. 78</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-103\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 79</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16949329-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16949329_104-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFStaginnusRichert-P\u00f6ggeler2006\" class=\"citation 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href=\"#cite_ref-107\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 115</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid10547702-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid10547702_108-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRoulstonMarcellusBranton1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Roulston A, Marcellus RC, Branton PE (1999). \"Viruses and apoptosis\". <i>Annual Review of Microbiology</i>. <b>53</b>: 577\u2013628. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.53.1.577\">10.1146/annurev.micro.53.1.577</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" 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class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid12076064-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid12076064_114-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSissonsBainWills2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sissons JG, Bain M, Wills MR (February 2002). \"Latency and reactivation of human cytomegalovirus\". <i>The Journal of Infection</i>. <b>44</b> (2): 73\u201377. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1053%2Fjinf.2001.0948\">10.1053/jinf.2001.0948</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12076064\">12076064</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Infection&amp;rft.atitle=Latency+and+reactivation+of+human+cytomegalovirus&amp;rft.volume=44&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=73-77&amp;rft.date=2002-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1053%2Fjinf.2001.0948&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12076064&amp;rft.aulast=Sissons&amp;rft.aufirst=JG&amp;rft.au=Bain%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Wills%2C+MR&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-isbn0-19-957485-5-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-isbn0-19-957485-5_115-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCrawford2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Crawford DH (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" 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class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17686862_139-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMargolisElfmanLeibPakpour2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Margolis TP, Elfman FL, Leib D, Pakpour N, Apakupakul K, Imai Y, Voytek C (October 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2045564\">\"Spontaneous reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 1 in latently infected murine sensory ganglia\"</a>. <i>Journal of Virology</i>. <b>81</b> (20): 11069\u201374. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJVI.00243-07\">10.1128/JVI.00243-07</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2045564\">2045564</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17686862\">17686862</a>.</cite><span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Lancet&amp;rft.atitle=Herpes+simplex+virus+infections&amp;rft.volume=357&amp;rft.issue=9267&amp;rft.pages=1513-18&amp;rft.date=2001-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9854903%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11377626&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2800%2904638-9&amp;rft.aulast=Whitley&amp;rft.aufirst=RJ&amp;rft.au=Roizman%2C+B&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-141\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBartonWhiteCathelynBrett-McClellan2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Barton ES, White DW, Cathelyn JS, Brett-McClellan KA, Engle M, Diamond MS,  et&#160;al. 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17931183_142-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBertolettiGehring2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bertoletti A, Gehring A (October 2007). \"Immune response and tolerance during chronic hepatitis B virus infection\". <i>Hepatology Research</i>. <b>37</b> (Suppl 3): S331\u201338. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1872-034X.2007.00221.x\">10.1111/j.1872-034X.2007.00221.x</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17931183\">17931183</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" 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class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-150\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 264</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 894</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid19091686-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19091686_152-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFJewellKeelingRoberts2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jewell CP, Keeling MJ, Roberts GO (December 2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2817150\">\"Predicting undetected infections during the 2007 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak\"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Society, Interface</i>. <b>6</b> 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href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7074453\">7074453</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32093211\">32093211</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+and+Public+Health+Responses+to+the+Coronavirus+Disease+2019+Outbreak+in+China&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=575&amp;rft.date=2020-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7074453%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32093211&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fjcm9020575&amp;rft.aulast=Deng&amp;rft.aufirst=SQ&amp;rft.au=Peng%2C+HJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7074453&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" 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class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19395876_178-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPulitzerAminBusam2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Pulitzer MP, Amin BD, Busam KJ (May 2009). \"Merkel cell carcinoma: review\". <i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 135\u201344. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e3181a12f5a\">10.1097/PAP.0b013e3181a12f5a</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19395876\">19395876</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17693253_186-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFDingVoinnet2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ding SW, Voinnet O (August 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2703654\">\"Antiviral immunity directed by small RNAs\"</a>. <i>Cell</i>. <b>130</b> (3): 413\u201326. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.07.039\">10.1016/j.cell.2007.07.039</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2703654\">2703654</a></span>. <a 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href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9086126\">9086126</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases&amp;rft.atitle=Serum+levels+of+rubella+virus+antibodies+indicating+immunity%3A+response+to+vaccination+of+subjects+with+low+or+undetectable+antibody+concentrations&amp;rft.volume=175&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=749-55&amp;rft.date=1997-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F513967&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9086126&amp;rft.aulast=Matter&amp;rft.aufirst=L&amp;rft.au=Kogelschatz%2C+K&amp;rft.au=Germann%2C+D&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F513967&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid21045130-191\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid21045130_191-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMalleryMcEwanBidgoodTowers2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mallery DL, McEwan WA, Bidgood SR, Towers GJ, Johnson CM, James LC (November 2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2993423\">\"Antibodies mediate intracellular immunity through tripartite motif-containing 21 (TRIM21)\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>107</b> (46): 19985\u201390. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..10719985M\">2010PNAS..10719985M</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=Antibodies+mediate+intracellular+immunity+through+tripartite+motif-containing+21+%28TRIM21%29&amp;rft.volume=107&amp;rft.issue=46&amp;rft.pages=19985-90&amp;rft.date=2010-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2993423%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21045130&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1014074107&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..10719985M&amp;rft.aulast=Mallery&amp;rft.aufirst=DL&amp;rft.au=McEwan%2C+WA&amp;rft.au=Bidgood%2C+SR&amp;rft.au=Towers%2C+GJ&amp;rft.au=Johnson%2C+CM&amp;rft.au=James%2C+LC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2993423&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid17725500-192\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17725500_192-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCascalhoPlatt2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cascalho M, Platt JL (2007). \"Novel functions of B cells\". <i>Critical Reviews in Immunology</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 141\u201351. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1615%2Fcritrevimmunol.v27.i2.20\">10.1615/critrevimmunol.v27.i2.20</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17725500\">17725500</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Immunology&amp;rft.atitle=Novel+functions+of+B+cells&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=141-51&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1615%2Fcritrevimmunol.v27.i2.20&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17725500&amp;rft.aulast=Cascalho&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Platt%2C+JL&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid11256746-193\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid11256746_193-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLe_PageG\u00e9ninBainesHiscott2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Le Page C, G\u00e9nin P, Baines MG, Hiscott J (2000). \"Interferon activation and innate immunity\". <i>Reviews in Immunogenetics</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 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href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC521982\">521982</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15297608\">15297608</a>.</cite><span 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accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7120753\">7120753</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16989262\">16989262</a>.</cite><span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annali+dell%27Istituto+Superiore+di+Sanit%C3%A0&amp;rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+antiretroviral+therapy+of+HIV+infection%3A+success+and+challenges&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=44-48&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4415%2FANN_11_01_10&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21430338&amp;rft.aulast=Palmisano&amp;rft.aufirst=L&amp;rft.au=Vella%2C+S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid28319996-210\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid28319996_210-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFalade-NwuliaSuarez-CuervoNelsonFried2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Falade-Nwulia O, Suarez-Cuervo C, Nelson DR, Fried MW, Segal JB, Sulkowski MS (May 2017). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5486987\">\"Oral Direct-Acting Agent Therapy for Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Systematic Review\"</a>. <i>Annals of Internal Medicine</i>. <b>166</b> (9): 637\u2013648. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.7326%2FM16-2575\">10.7326/M16-2575</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5486987\">5486987</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28319996\">28319996</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Oral+Direct-Acting+Agent+Therapy+for+Hepatitis+C+Virus+Infection%3A+A+Systematic+Review&amp;rft.volume=166&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=637-648&amp;rft.date=2017-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5486987%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28319996&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2FM16-2575&amp;rft.aulast=Falade-Nwulia&amp;rft.aufirst=O&amp;rft.au=Suarez-Cuervo%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Nelson%2C+DR&amp;rft.au=Fried%2C+MW&amp;rft.au=Segal%2C+JB&amp;rft.au=Sulkowski%2C+MS&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5486987&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid32102898-211\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid32102898_211-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFNguyenWongGaneKao2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Nguyen MH, Wong G, Gane E, Kao JH, Dusheiko G (March 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7048015\">\"Hepatitis B Virus: Advances in Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy\"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>33</b> (2). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00046-19\">10.1128/CMR.00046-19</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7048015\">7048015</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32102898\">32102898</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Hepatitis+B+Virus%3A+Advances+in+Prevention%2C+Diagnosis%2C+and+Therapy&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2020-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7048015%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32102898&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00046-19&amp;rft.aulast=Nguyen&amp;rft.aufirst=MH&amp;rft.au=Wong%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Gane%2C+E&amp;rft.au=Kao%2C+JH&amp;rft.au=Dusheiko%2C+G&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7048015&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-212\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-212\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 3</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18035428-213\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18035428_213-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGorisVandenbusscheDe_Clercq2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Goris N, Vandenbussche F, De Clercq K (April 2008). \"Potential of antiviral therapy and prophylaxis for controlling RNA viral infections of livestock\". <i>Antiviral Research</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 170\u201378. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.antiviral.2007.10.003\">10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.003</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18035428\">18035428</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Antiviral+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Potential+of+antiviral+therapy+and+prophylaxis+for+controlling+RNA+viral+infections+of+livestock&amp;rft.volume=78&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=170-78&amp;rft.date=2008-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.antiviral.2007.10.003&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18035428&amp;rft.aulast=Goris&amp;rft.aufirst=N&amp;rft.au=Vandenbussche%2C+F&amp;rft.au=De+Clercq%2C+K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-214\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-214\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite 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Academic Press. pp.&#160;555\u2013556. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123611604\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780123611604\"><bdi>9780123611604</bdi></a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=12&amp;rft.btitle=Matthews%27+Plant+Virology&amp;rft.pages=555-556&amp;rft.edition=Fourth&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=9780123611604&amp;rft.aulast=Hull&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780123611604500633&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-217\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-217\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 802</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-218\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-218\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 799\u2013807</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid24925679-219\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid24925679_219-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFZaheerAkhtar2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zaheer K, Akhtar MH (2016). \"Potato Production, Usage, and Nutrition \u2013 A Review\". <i>Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition</i>. <b>56</b> (5): 711\u201321. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2012.724479\">10.1080/10408398.2012.724479</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24925679\">24925679</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33074838\">33074838</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Food+Science+and+Nutrition&amp;rft.atitle=Potato+Production%2C+Usage%2C+and+Nutrition+%E2%80%93+A+Review&amp;rft.volume=56&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=711-21&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33074838%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24925679&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408398.2012.724479&amp;rft.aulast=Zaheer&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rft.au=Akhtar%2C+MH&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid31559020-220\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid31559020_220-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFuentesJonesMatsuokaOhshima2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Fuentes S, Jones RA, Matsuoka H, Ohshima K, Kreuze J, Gibbs AJ (July 2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6755682\">\"Potato virus Y; the Andean connection\"</a>. <i>Virus Evolution</i>. <b>5</b> (2): vez037. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fve%2Fvez037\">10.1093/ve/vez037</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6755682\">6755682</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31559020\">31559020</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Evolution&amp;rft.atitle=Potato+virus+Y%3B+the+Andean+connection&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=vez037&amp;rft.date=2019-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6755682%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31559020&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fve%2Fvez037&amp;rft.aulast=Fuentes&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+RA&amp;rft.au=Matsuoka%2C+H&amp;rft.au=Ohshima%2C+K&amp;rft.au=Kreuze%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Gibbs%2C+AJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6755682&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-221\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-221\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFDinesh-KumarThamBaker2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dinesh-Kumar SP, Tham WH, Baker BJ (December 2000). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18997\">\"Structure-function analysis of the tobacco mosaic virus resistance gene N\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>97</b> (26): 14789\u201394. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...9714789D\">2000PNAS...9714789D</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.26.14789\">10.1073/pnas.97.26.14789</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18997\">18997</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11121079\">11121079</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=Structure-function+analysis+of+the+tobacco+mosaic+virus+resistance+gene+N&amp;rft.volume=97&amp;rft.issue=26&amp;rft.pages=14789-94&amp;rft.date=2000-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18997%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11121079&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.26.14789&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...9714789D&amp;rft.aulast=Dinesh-Kumar&amp;rft.aufirst=SP&amp;rft.au=Tham%2C+WH&amp;rft.au=Baker%2C+BJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18997&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-222\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-222\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 809</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-223\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-223\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSoosaarBurch-SmithDinesh-Kumar2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Soosaar JL, Burch-Smith TM, Dinesh-Kumar SP (October 2005). \"Mechanisms of plant resistance to viruses\". <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>3</b> (10): 789\u201398. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro1239\">10.1038/nrmicro1239</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16132037\">16132037</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27311732\">27311732</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Mechanisms+of+plant+resistance+to+viruses&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=789-98&amp;rft.date=2005-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27311732%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16132037&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro1239&amp;rft.aulast=Soosaar&amp;rft.aufirst=JL&amp;rft.au=Burch-Smith%2C+TM&amp;rft.au=Dinesh-Kumar%2C+SP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LomonossoffGP-224\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LomonossoffGP_224-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLomonossoff2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lomonossoff GP (2011). \"Virus Particles and the Uses of Such Particles in Bio- and Nanotechnology\". <i>Recent Advances in Plant Virology</i>. <a href=\"/wiki/Caister_Academic_Press\" title=\"Caister Academic Press\">Caister Academic Press</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-75-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-75-2\"><bdi>978-1-904455-75-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Virus+Particles+and+the+Uses+of+Such+Particles+in+Bio-+and+Nanotechnology&amp;rft.btitle=Recent+Advances+in+Plant+Virology&amp;rft.pub=Caister+Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-904455-75-2&amp;rft.aulast=Lomonossoff&amp;rft.aufirst=GP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-225\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-225\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWommackColwell2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wommack KE, Colwell RR (March 2000). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC98987\">\"Virioplankton: viruses in aquatic ecosystems\"</a>. <i>Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 69\u2013114. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.64.1.69-114.2000\">10.1128/MMBR.64.1.69-114.2000</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC98987\">98987</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10704475\">10704475</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Virioplankton%3A+viruses+in+aquatic+ecosystems&amp;rft.volume=64&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=69-114&amp;rft.date=2000-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC98987%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10704475&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.64.1.69-114.2000&amp;rft.aulast=Wommack&amp;rft.aufirst=KE&amp;rft.au=Colwell%2C+RR&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC98987&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-226\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-226\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBerghB\u00f8rsheimBratbakHeldal1989\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bergh O, B\u00f8rsheim KY, Bratbak G, Heldal M (August 1989). \"High abundance of viruses found in aquatic environments\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>340</b> (6233): 467\u201368. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.340..467B\">1989Natur.340..467B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F340467a0\">10.1038/340467a0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2755508\">2755508</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4271861\">4271861</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=High+abundance+of+viruses+found+in+aquatic+environments&amp;rft.volume=340&amp;rft.issue=6233&amp;rft.pages=467-68&amp;rft.date=1989-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F340467a0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4271861%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2755508&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.340..467B&amp;rft.aulast=Bergh&amp;rft.aufirst=O&amp;rft.au=B%C3%B8rsheim%2C+KY&amp;rft.au=Bratbak%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Heldal%2C+M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-227\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-227\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 834\u201335</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-228\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-228\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBickleKr\u00fcger1993\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bickle TA, Kr\u00fcger DH (June 1993). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC372918\">\"Biology of DNA restriction\"</a>. <i>Microbiological Reviews</i>. <b>57</b> (2): 434\u201350. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.57.2.434-450.1993\">10.1128/MMBR.57.2.434-450.1993</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC372918\">372918</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8336674\">8336674</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Microbiological+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Biology+of+DNA+restriction&amp;rft.volume=57&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=434-50&amp;rft.date=1993-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC372918%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8336674&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.57.2.434-450.1993&amp;rft.aulast=Bickle&amp;rft.aufirst=TA&amp;rft.au=Kr%C3%BCger%2C+DH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC372918&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-229\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-229\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBarrangouFremauxDeveauRichards2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Barrangou R, Fremaux C, Deveau H, Richards M, Boyaval P, Moineau S,  et&#160;al. (March 2007). \"CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes\". <i>Science</i>. <b>315</b> (5819): 1709\u201312. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315.1709B\">2007Sci...315.1709B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1138140\">10.1126/science.1138140</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\">hdl</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11794%2F38902\">20.500.11794/38902</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17379808\">17379808</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3888761\">3888761</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=CRISPR+provides+acquired+resistance+against+viruses+in+prokaryotes&amp;rft.volume=315&amp;rft.issue=5819&amp;rft.pages=1709-12&amp;rft.date=2007-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11794%2F38902&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3888761%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...315.1709B&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17379808&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1138140&amp;rft.aulast=Barrangou&amp;rft.aufirst=R&amp;rft.au=Fremaux%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Deveau%2C+H&amp;rft.au=Richards%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Boyaval%2C+P&amp;rft.au=Moineau%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Romero%2C+DA&amp;rft.au=Horvath%2C+P&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-230\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBrounsJoreLundgrenWestra2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Brouns SJ, Jore MM, Lundgren M, Westra ER, Slijkhuis RJ, Snijders AP,  et&#160;al. 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href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18703739\">18703739</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Small+CRISPR+RNAs+guide+antiviral+defense+in+prokaryotes&amp;rft.volume=321&amp;rft.issue=5891&amp;rft.pages=960-64&amp;rft.date=2008-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5898235%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18703739&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1159689&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...321..960B&amp;rft.aulast=Brouns&amp;rft.aufirst=SJ&amp;rft.au=Jore%2C+MM&amp;rft.au=Lundgren%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Westra%2C+ER&amp;rft.au=Slijkhuis%2C+RJ&amp;rft.au=Snijders%2C+AP&amp;rft.au=Dickman%2C+MJ&amp;rft.au=Makarova%2C+KS&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&amp;rft.au=van+der+Oost%2C+J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5898235&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27234458-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27234458_231-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMojicaRodriguez-Valera2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mojica FJ, Rodriguez-Valera F (September 2016). \"The discovery of CRISPR in archaea and bacteria\". <i>The FEBS Journal</i>. <b>283</b> (17): 3162\u201369. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ffebs.13766\">10.1111/febs.13766</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\">hdl</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://hdl.handle.net/10045%2F57676\">10045/57676</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27234458\">27234458</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42827598\">42827598</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+FEBS+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+CRISPR+in+archaea+and+bacteria&amp;rft.volume=283&amp;rft.issue=17&amp;rft.pages=3162-69&amp;rft.date=2016-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10045%2F57676&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42827598%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27234458&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Ffebs.13766&amp;rft.aulast=Mojica&amp;rft.aufirst=FJ&amp;rft.au=Rodriguez-Valera%2C+F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-232\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-232\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPrangishviliGarrett2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Prangishvili D, Garrett RA (April 2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/51497971/0320204.pdf\">\"Exceptionally diverse morphotypes and genomes of crenarchaeal hyperthermophilic viruses\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Biochemical Society Transactions</i>. <b>32</b> (Pt 2): 204\u201308. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1042%2FBST0320204\">10.1042/BST0320204</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15046572\">15046572</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Society+Transactions&amp;rft.atitle=Exceptionally+diverse+morphotypes+and+genomes+of+crenarchaeal+hyperthermophilic+viruses&amp;rft.volume=32&amp;rft.issue=Pt+2&amp;rft.pages=204-08&amp;rft.date=2004-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2FBST0320204&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15046572&amp;rft.aulast=Prangishvili&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft.au=Garrett%2C+RA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcuris.ku.dk%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F51497971%2F0320204.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-233\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-233\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMojicaD\u00edez-Villase\u00f1orGarc\u00eda-Mart\u00ednezSoria2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mojica FJ, D\u00edez-Villase\u00f1or C, Garc\u00eda-Mart\u00ednez J, Soria E (February 2005). \"Intervening sequences of regularly spaced prokaryotic repeats derive from foreign genetic elements\". <i>Journal of Molecular Evolution</i>. <b>60</b> (2): 174\u201382. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JMolE..60..174M\">2005JMolE..60..174M</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00239-004-0046-3\">10.1007/s00239-004-0046-3</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791728\">15791728</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27481111\">27481111</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Evolution&amp;rft.atitle=Intervening+sequences+of+regularly+spaced+prokaryotic+repeats+derive+from+foreign+genetic+elements&amp;rft.volume=60&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=174-82&amp;rft.date=2005-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00239-004-0046-3&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27481111%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15791728&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JMolE..60..174M&amp;rft.aulast=Mojica&amp;rft.aufirst=FJ&amp;rft.au=D%C3%ADez-Villase%C3%B1or%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa-Mart%C3%ADnez%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Soria%2C+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-234\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-234\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" 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href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462988\">1462988</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16545108\">16545108</a>.</cite><span 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid24909109_235-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFvan_der_OostWestraJacksonWiedenheft2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">van der Oost J, Westra ER, Jackson RN, Wiedenheft B (July 2014). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4225775\">\"Unravelling the structural and mechanistic basis of CRISPR-Cas systems\"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. 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class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid30443861-237\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid30443861_237-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFZhangGui2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zhang QY, Gui JF (December 2018). \"Diversity, evolutionary contribution and ecological roles of aquatic viruses\". <i>Science China Life Sciences</i>. <b>61</b> (12): 1486\u20131502. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11427-018-9414-7\">10.1007/s11427-018-9414-7</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30443861\">30443861</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53564176\">53564176</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+China+Life+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Diversity%2C+evolutionary+contribution+and+ecological+roles+of+aquatic+viruses&amp;rft.volume=61&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=1486-1502&amp;rft.date=2018-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53564176%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30443861&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11427-018-9414-7&amp;rft.aulast=Zhang&amp;rft.aufirst=QY&amp;rft.au=Gui%2C+JF&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-238\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-238\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWeitzWilhelm2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Weitz JS, Wilhelm SW (2013). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/36120/title/An-Ocean-of-Viruses/\">\"An ocean of viruses\"</a>. <i>The Scientist</i>. <b>27</b> (7): 35\u201339.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&amp;rft.atitle=An+ocean+of+viruses&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=35-39&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.aulast=Weitz&amp;rft.aufirst=JS&amp;rft.au=Wilhelm%2C+SW&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2F%3Farticles.view%2FarticleNo%2F36120%2Ftitle%2FAn-Ocean-of-Viruses%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16163346-239\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16163346_239-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSuttle2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Suttle CA (September 2005). \"Viruses in the sea\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>437</b> (7057): 356\u201361. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.437..356S\">2005Natur.437..356S</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04160\">10.1038/nature04160</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16163346\">16163346</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4370363\">4370363</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Viruses+in+the+sea&amp;rft.volume=437&amp;rft.issue=7057&amp;rft.pages=356-61&amp;rft.date=2005-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04160&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4370363%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16163346&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.437..356S&amp;rft.aulast=Suttle&amp;rft.aufirst=CA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-240\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-240\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWilhelmSuttle1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wilhelm SW, Suttle CA (1999). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1313569\">\"Viruses and nutrient cycles in the sea: viruses play critical roles in the structure and function of aquatic food webs\"</a>. <i>BioScience</i>. <b>49</b> (10): 781\u201388. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1313569\">10.2307/1313569</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1313569\">1313569</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BioScience&amp;rft.atitle=Viruses+and+nutrient+cycles+in+the+sea%3A+viruses+play+critical+roles+in+the+structure+and+function+of+aquatic+food+webs&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=781-88&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1313569&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1313569%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.aulast=Wilhelm&amp;rft.aufirst=SW&amp;rft.au=Suttle%2C+CA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F1313569&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-241\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-241\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFShelfordSuttle2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Shelford EJ, Suttle CA (2018). <a 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Microbiology</i>. <b>5</b> (10): 801\u201312. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro1750\">10.1038/nrmicro1750</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17853907\">17853907</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4658457\">4658457</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Marine+viruses+%E2%80%93+major+players+in+the+global+ecosystem&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=801-12&amp;rft.date=2007-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4658457%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17853907&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro1750&amp;rft.aulast=Suttle&amp;rft.aufirst=CA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27572161-243\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27572161_243-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWigingtonSondereggerBrussaardBuchan2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wigington CH, Sonderegger D, Brussaard CP, Buchan A, Finke JF, Fuhrman JA,  et&#160;al. 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(3 January 2023). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9910503\">\"The consumption of viruses returns energy to food chains\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>120</b> (1): e2215000120. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023PNAS..12015000D\">2023PNAS..12015000D</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2215000120\">10.1073/pnas.2215000120</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424\">0027-8424</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9910503\">9910503</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36574690\">36574690</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255219850\">255219850</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=The+consumption+of+viruses+returns+energy+to+food+chains&amp;rft.volume=120&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=e2215000120&amp;rft.date=2023-01-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9910503%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255219850%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023PNAS..12015000D&amp;rft.issn=0027-8424&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2215000120&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36574690&amp;rft.aulast=DeLong&amp;rft.aufirst=John+P.&amp;rft.au=Van+Etten%2C+James+L.&amp;rft.au=Al-Ameeli%2C+Zeina&amp;rft.au=Agarkova%2C+Irina+V.&amp;rft.au=Dunigan%2C+David+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9910503&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-First_Virovore-249\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-First_Virovore_249-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFIrving2022\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Irving, Michael (28 December 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20221229023549/https://newatlas.com/science/first-virovore-eats-viruses/\">\"First \"virovore\" discovered: An organism that eats viruses\"</a>. New Atlas. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://newatlas.com/science/first-virovore-eats-viruses/\">the original</a> on 29 December 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31032941\">31032941</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=What+viruses+tell+us+about+evolution+and+immunity%3A+beyond+Darwin%3F&amp;rft.volume=1447&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=53-68&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6850104%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31032941&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fnyas.14097&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NYASA1447...53B&amp;rft.aulast=Broecker&amp;rft.aufirst=F&amp;rft.au=Moelling%2C+K&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6850104&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid11536914-251\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a 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text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927585\">4927585</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27446051\">27446051</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Filamentous+Phages+As+a+Model+System+in+Soft+Matter+Physics&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.pages=1013&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4927585%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27446051&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffmicb.2016.01013&amp;rft.aulast=Dogic&amp;rft.aufirst=Z&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4927585&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Small&amp;rft.atitle=An+engineered+virus+as+a+scaffold+for+three-dimensional+self-assembly+on+the+nanoscale&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=702-06&amp;rft.date=2005-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fsmll.200500021&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17193509&amp;rft.aulast=Blum&amp;rft.aufirst=AS&amp;rft.au=Soto%2C+CM&amp;rft.au=Wilson%2C+CD&amp;rft.au=Brower%2C+TL&amp;rft.au=Pollack%2C+SK&amp;rft.au=Schull%2C+TL&amp;rft.au=Chatterji%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Lin%2C+T&amp;rft.au=Johnson%2C+JE&amp;rft.au=Amsinck%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Franzon%2C+P&amp;rft.au=Shashidhar%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Ratna%2C+BR&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-264\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-264\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCelloPaulWimmer2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cello J, Paul AV, Wimmer E (August 2002). \"Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template\". <i>Science</i>. <b>297</b> (5583): 1016\u201318. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...297.1016C\">2002Sci...297.1016C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1072266\">10.1126/science.1072266</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12114528\">12114528</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5810309\">5810309</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Chemical+synthesis+of+poliovirus+cDNA%3A+generation+of+infectious+virus+in+the+absence+of+natural+template&amp;rft.volume=297&amp;rft.issue=5583&amp;rft.pages=1016-18&amp;rft.date=2002-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1072266&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5810309%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12114528&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Sci...297.1016C&amp;rft.aulast=Cello&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Paul%2C+AV&amp;rft.au=Wimmer%2C+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Coleman-265\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Coleman_265-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFColemanPapamichailSkienaFutcher2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Coleman JR, Papamichail D, Skiena S, Futcher B, Wimmer E, Mueller S (June 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754401\">\"Virus attenuation by genome-scale changes in codon pair bias\"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>320</b> (5884): 1784\u201387. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...320.1784C\">2008Sci...320.1784C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1155761\">10.1126/science.1155761</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754401\">2754401</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18583614\">18583614</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Virus+attenuation+by+genome-scale+changes+in+codon+pair+bias&amp;rft.volume=320&amp;rft.issue=5884&amp;rft.pages=1784-87&amp;rft.date=2008-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2754401%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18583614&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1155761&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...320.1784C&amp;rft.aulast=Coleman&amp;rft.aufirst=JR&amp;rft.au=Papamichail%2C+D&amp;rft.au=Skiena%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Futcher%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Wimmer%2C+E&amp;rft.au=Mueller%2C+S&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2754401&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-266\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-266\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/GenomesGroup.cgi?taxid=10239\">\"NIH viral genome database\"</a>. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=NIH+viral+genome+database&amp;rft.pub=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgenomes%2FGenomesGroup.cgi%3Ftaxid%3D10239&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid30152475-267\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid30152475_267-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFZilinskas2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zilinskas RA (August 2017). \"A brief history of biological weapons programmes and the use of animal pathogens as biological warfare agents\". <i>Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics)</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 415\u2013422. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.20506%2Frst.36.2.2662\">10.20506/rst.36.2.2662</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30152475\">30152475</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Revue+Scientifique+et+Technique+%28International+Office+of+Epizootics%29&amp;rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+biological+weapons+programmes+and+the+use+of+animal+pathogens+as+biological+warfare+agents&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=415-422&amp;rft.date=2017-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20506%2Frst.36.2.2662&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30152475&amp;rft.aulast=Zilinskas&amp;rft.aufirst=RA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18844596-268\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFArtensteinGrabenstein2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Artenstein AW, Grabenstein JD (October 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9709930\">\"Smallpox vaccines for biodefense: need and feasibility\"</a>. <i>Expert Review of Vaccines</i>. <b>7</b> (8): 1225\u201337. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1586%2F14760584.7.8.1225\">10.1586/14760584.7.8.1225</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9709930\">9709930</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18844596\">18844596</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33855724\">33855724</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Expert+Review+of+Vaccines&amp;rft.atitle=Smallpox+vaccines+for+biodefense%3A+need+and+feasibility&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1225-37&amp;rft.date=2008-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9709930%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33855724%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18844596&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1586%2F14760584.7.8.1225&amp;rft.aulast=Artenstein&amp;rft.aufirst=AW&amp;rft.au=Grabenstein%2C+JD&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9709930&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n</ol></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=43\" title=\"Edit section: Bibliography\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1054258005\">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class=\"refbegin references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCollierBalowsSussman1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Collier L, Balows A, Sussman M (1998).  Mahy B, Collier LA (eds.). <i>Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections</i>. Virology. Vol.&#160;1 (Ninth&#160;ed.). <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-66316-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/0-340-66316-2\"><bdi>0-340-66316-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Topley+and+Wilson%27s+Microbiology+and+Microbial+Infections&amp;rft.series=Virology&amp;rft.edition=Ninth&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=0-340-66316-2&amp;rft.aulast=Collier&amp;rft.aufirst=L&amp;rft.au=Balows%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Sussman%2C+M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFDimmockEastonLeppard2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ, Leppard K (2007). <i>Introduction to Modern Virology</i> (Sixth&#160;ed.). Blackwell Publishing. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3645-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3645-7\"><bdi>978-1-4051-3645-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Modern+Virology&amp;rft.edition=Sixth&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3645-7&amp;rft.aulast=Dimmock&amp;rft.aufirst=NJ&amp;rft.au=Easton%2C+AJ&amp;rft.au=Leppard%2C+K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKnipeHowleyGriffinLamb2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Knipe DM, Howley PM, Griffin DE, Lamb RA, Martin MA, Roizman B, Straus SE (2007). <i>Fields Virology</i>. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6060-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6060-7\"><bdi>978-0-7817-6060-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fields+Virology&amp;rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7817-6060-7&amp;rft.aulast=Knipe&amp;rft.aufirst=DM&amp;rft.au=Howley%2C+PM&amp;rft.au=Griffin%2C+DE&amp;rft.au=Lamb%2C+RA&amp;rft.au=Martin%2C+MA&amp;rft.au=Roizman%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Straus%2C+SE&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKrasner2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Krasner, Robert (2014). <i>The microbial challenge: a public health perspective</i>. Burlington, Mass: Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-7375-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-7375-8\"><bdi>978-1-4496-7375-8</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794228026\">794228026</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+microbial+challenge%3A+a+public+health+perspective&amp;rft.place=Burlington%2C+Mass&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F794228026&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4496-7375-8&amp;rft.aulast=Krasner&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>&lt;/ref&gt;</li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFShors2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shors T (2017). <i>Understanding Viruses</i>. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-284-02592-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-284-02592-7\"><bdi>978-1-284-02592-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Viruses&amp;rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-284-02592-7&amp;rft.aulast=Shors&amp;rft.aufirst=T&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n</div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=44\" title=\"Edit section: External links\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1134653256\">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1126788409\">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style>\n<div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"512\" data-file-height=\"512\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\">Look up <i><b><a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/genogroup\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:genogroup\">genogroup</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>\n</div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1134653256\"/><div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409\"/>\n<div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"512\" data-file-height=\"512\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\">Look up <i><b><a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/virus\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:Special:Search/virus\">virus</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>\n</div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /></a> Media related to <a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Viruses\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Viruses\">Viruses</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Wikispecies-logo.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/14px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"14\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/20px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/27px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"941\" data-file-height=\"1103\" /></a> Data related to <a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Virus\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Special:Search/Virus\">Virus</a> at Wikispecies</li>\n<li><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://viralzone.expasy.org/\">ViralZone</a> A Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics resource for all viral families, providing general molecular and epidemiological information</li></ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1129693374\">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:\": \"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:\" \u00b7 \";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:\" (\";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:\")\";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:\" \"counter(listitem)\"\\a0 \"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:\" (\"counter(listitem)\"\\a0 \"}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1061467846\">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Microbiology:_Virus\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"3\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1063604349\">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:\"[ \"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:\" ]\"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Virus_topics\" title=\"Template:Virus topics\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Virus_topics\" title=\"Template talk:Virus topics\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Virus_topics&amp;action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Microbiology:_Virus\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\">Microbiology</a>: <a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Virus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"3\"><div id=\"*_History_*_Introduction_*_Social_history_of_viruses_*_Virology\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/History_of_virology\" title=\"History of virology\">History</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Introduction_to_viruses\" title=\"Introduction to viruses\">Introduction</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses\" title=\"Social history of viruses\">Social history of viruses</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virology\" title=\"Virology\">Virology</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Components</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">Capsid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">Viral envelope</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_protein\" title=\"Viral protein\">Viral protein</a></li></ul>\n</div></td><td class=\"noviewer navbox-image\" rowspan=\"5\" style=\"width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px\"><div><a href=\"/wiki/File:Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"Rotavirus Reconstruction.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg/100px-Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"88\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg/150px-Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg/200px-Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1986\" data-file-height=\"1739\" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_life_cycle\" title=\"Viral life cycle\">Viral life cycle</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_entry\" title=\"Viral entry\">Viral entry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_replication\" title=\"Viral replication\">Viral replication</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shedding\" title=\"Viral shedding\">Viral shedding</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viroplasm\" title=\"Viroplasm\">Viroplasm</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_latency\" title=\"Virus latency\">Virus latency</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Genetics</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_drift\" title=\"Antigenic drift\">Antigenic drift</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_shift\" title=\"Antigenic shift\">Antigenic shift</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phenotype_mixing\" title=\"Phenotype mixing\">Phenotype mixing</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Reassortment\" title=\"Reassortment\">Reassortment</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_evolution\" title=\"Viral evolution\">Viral evolution</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">By host</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Animal_virus\" title=\"Animal virus\">Animal virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophage\" title=\"Bacteriophage\">Bacteriophage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virophage\" title=\"Virophage\">Virophage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Human_virome\" title=\"Human virome\">Human virome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mycovirus\" title=\"Mycovirus\">Mycovirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_virus\" title=\"Plant virus\">Plant virus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">Antiviral drug</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Giant_virus\" title=\"Giant virus\">Giant virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_virus\" title=\"Helper virus\">Helper virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_vector\" title=\"Viral vector\">Viral vector</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_dependent_virus\" title=\"Helper dependent virus\">Helper dependent virus</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Laboratory_diagnosis_of_viral_infections\" title=\"Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections\">Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Marine_viruses\" title=\"Marine viruses\">Marine viruses</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Neurotropic_virus\" title=\"Neurotropic virus\">Neurotropic virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Oncovirus\" title=\"Oncovirus\">Oncovirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">Satellites</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_disease\" title=\"Viral disease\">Viral disease</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_load\" title=\"Viral load\">Viral load</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus-like_particle\" title=\"Virus-like particle\">Virus-like particle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">Virus classification</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_quantification\" title=\"Virus quantification\">Virus quantification</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virome\" title=\"Virome\">Virome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virosphere\" title=\"Virosphere\">Virosphere</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"3\"><div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg\" class=\"image\" title=\"Portal\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"180\" data-file-height=\"185\" /></a> <b><a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Viruses\" title=\"Portal:Viruses\">Portal</a></b></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Category\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"180\" data-file-height=\"185\" /> <b><a href=\"/wiki/Category:Viruses\" title=\"Category:Viruses\">Category</a></b></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Commons page\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /> <b><a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Viruse\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Viruse\">Commons</a></b></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"WikiProject\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"100\" data-file-height=\"100\" /> <b><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Viruses\" title=\"Wikipedia:WikiProject Viruses\">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Self-replicating_organic_structures\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\"/><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures\" title=\"Template:Self-replicating organic structures\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\"text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Self-replicating_organic_structures\" title=\"Template talk:Self-replicating organic structures\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\"text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures&amp;action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\"text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Self-replicating_organic_structures\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Self-replication\" title=\"Self-replication\">Self-replicating</a> organic structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Life\" title=\"Life\">Cellular life</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\">Bacteria</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryote\" title=\"Eukaryote\">Eukaryota</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Animal\" title=\"Animal\">Animalia</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungus\" title=\"Fungus\">Fungi</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant\" title=\"Plant\">Plantae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">Protista</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Incertae_sedis\" title=\"Incertae sedis\">Incertae sedis</a></i>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Parakaryon_myojinensis\" title=\"Parakaryon myojinensis\">Parakaryon myojinensis</a></i></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Biological_dark_matter\" title=\"Biological dark matter\">Biological dark matter</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Virus</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_I:_dsDNA_viruses\" title=\"DNA virus\">dsDNA virus</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Giant_virus\" title=\"Giant virus\">Giant virus</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_II:_ssDNA_viruses\" title=\"DNA virus\">ssDNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA_viruses\" title=\"Double-stranded RNA viruses\">dsRNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_IV\u2014positive-sense_ssRNA_viruses\" title=\"RNA virus\">(+)ssRNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_V\u2014negative-sense_ssRNA_viruses\" title=\"RNA virus\">(\u2212)ssRNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrovirus\" title=\"Retrovirus\">ssRNA-RT virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA-RT virus\">dsDNA-RT virus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Subviral_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Subviral agents\">Subviral<br />agents</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Viroid\" title=\"Viroid\">Viroid</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Pospiviroidae\" title=\"Pospiviroidae\">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Avsunviroidae\" title=\"Avsunviroidae\">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_virus\" title=\"Helper virus\">Helper-virus<br />dependent</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">Satellite</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li>ssRNA satellite virus</li>\n<li>dsDNA satellite virus (<a href=\"/wiki/Virophage\" title=\"Virophage\">Virophage</a>)</li>\n<li>ssDNA satellite virus</li>\n<li>ssDNA satellite</li>\n<li>dsRNA satellite</li>\n<li>ssRNA satellite (<a href=\"/wiki/Virusoid\" title=\"Virusoid\">Virusoid</a>)</li>\n<li>Satellite-like nucleic acids\n<ul><li>RNA</li>\n<li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle\" title=\"Defective interfering particle\">Defective interfering particle</a>\n<ul><li>RNA</li>\n<li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Prion\" title=\"Prion\">Prion</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Prion\" title=\"Prion\">Mammalian prion</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungal_prion\" title=\"Fungal prion\">Fungal prion</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Nucleic_acid\" title=\"Nucleic acid\">Nucleic acid</a><br />self-replication</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements\" title=\"Mobile genetic elements\">Mobile genetic<br />elements</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mobilome\" title=\"Mobilome\">Mobilome</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer\" title=\"Horizontal gene transfer\">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Genomic_island\" title=\"Genomic island\">Genomic island</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transposable_element\" title=\"Transposable element\">Transposable element</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrotransposon\" title=\"Retrotransposon\">Class I or retrotransposon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_transposon\" title=\"DNA transposon\">Class II or DNA transposon</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">Plasmid</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fertility_factor_(bacteria)\" title=\"Fertility factor (bacteria)\">Fertility</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/R-factor\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"R-factor\">Resistance</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Colicin\" title=\"Colicin\">Col</a></li>\n<li>Degradative</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virulence_factor\" title=\"Virulence factor\">Virulence</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Ti_plasmid\" title=\"Ti plasmid\">Ti</a></li>\n<li>Cryptic</li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cosmid\" title=\"Cosmid\">Cosmid</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fosmid\" title=\"Fosmid\">Fosmid</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phagemid\" title=\"Phagemid\">Phagemid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Group_I_catalytic_intron\" title=\"Group I catalytic intron\">Group I intron</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Group_II_intron\" title=\"Group II intron\">Group II intron</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrozyme\" title=\"Retrozyme\">Retrozyme</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;\">Other aspects</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_replication\" title=\"DNA replication\">DNA replication</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase\" title=\"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase\">RNA replication</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chromosome\" title=\"Chromosome\">Chromosome</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Linear_chromosome\" title=\"Linear chromosome\">Linear</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Circular_chromosome\" title=\"Circular chromosome\">Circular</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA\" title=\"Extrachromosomal DNA\">Extrachromosomal DNA</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Secondary_chromosome\" title=\"Secondary chromosome\">Secondary chromosome</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">Genome</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Gene\" title=\"Gene\">Gene</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gene_duplication\" title=\"Gene duplication\">Gene duplication</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-coding_DNA\" title=\"Non-coding DNA\">Non-coding DNA</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Origin_of_replication\" title=\"Origin of replication\">Origin of replication</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Replicon_(genetics)\" title=\"Replicon (genetics)\">Replicon</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element\" title=\"Endogenous viral element\">Endogenous viral element</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Provirus\" title=\"Provirus\">Provirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Prophage\" title=\"Prophage\">Prophage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endogenous_retrovirus\" title=\"Endogenous retrovirus\">Endogenous retrovirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transpoviron\" title=\"Transpoviron\">Transpoviron</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Repeated_sequence_(DNA)\" title=\"Repeated sequence (DNA)\">Repeated sequences in DNA</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Tandem_repeat\" title=\"Tandem repeat\">Tandem repeat</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Interspersed_repeat\" title=\"Interspersed repeat\">Interspersed repeat</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">Endosymbiosis</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitochondrion\" title=\"Mitochondrion\">Mitochondrion</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitosome\" title=\"Mitosome\">Mitosome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Hydrogenosome\" title=\"Hydrogenosome\">Hydrogenosome</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">Plastid</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">Chloroplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chromoplast\" title=\"Chromoplast\">Chromoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gerontoplast\" title=\"Gerontoplast\">Gerontoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Leucoplast\" title=\"Leucoplast\">Leucoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apicoplast\" title=\"Apicoplast\">Apicoplast</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Kappa_organism\" title=\"Kappa organism\">Kappa organism</a></li>\n<li>Organs\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriome\" title=\"Bacteriome\">Bacteriome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Trophosome\" title=\"Trophosome\">Trophosome</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Abiogenesis\" title=\"Abiogenesis\">Abiogenesis</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor\" title=\"Last universal common ancestor\">Last universal common ancestor</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms\" title=\"Earliest known life forms\">Earliest known life forms</a></li>\n<li>?<a href=\"/wiki/RNA_world\" title=\"RNA world\">RNA life</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyme\" title=\"Ribozyme\">Ribozyme</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>\u2020<a href=\"/wiki/Protocell\" title=\"Protocell\">Protocell</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coacervate\" title=\"Coacervate\">Coacervate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Proteinoid\" title=\"Proteinoid\">Proteinoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sulphobes\" title=\"Sulphobes\">Sulphobe</a></li>\n<li>Research\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer\" title=\"Model lipid bilayer\">Model lipid bilayer</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Jeewanu\" title=\"Jeewanu\">Jeewanu</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\">See also</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">Organism</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_(biology)\" title=\"Cell (biology)\">Cell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_division\" title=\"Cell division\">Cell division</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Artificial_cell\" title=\"Artificial cell\">Artificial cell</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-cellular_life\" title=\"Non-cellular life\">Non-cellular life</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Synthetic_virology\" title=\"Synthetic virology\">Synthetic virus</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_vector\" title=\"Viral vector\">Viral vector</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_dependent_virus\" title=\"Helper dependent virus\">Helper dependent virus</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>?<a href=\"/wiki/Nanobacterium\" title=\"Nanobacterium\">Nanobacterium</a></li>\n<li>?<a href=\"/wiki/Nanobe\" title=\"Nanobe\">Nanobe</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cancer_cell\" title=\"Cancer cell\">Cancer cell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/HeLa\" title=\"HeLa\">HeLa</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer\" title=\"Clonally transmissible cancer\">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virome\" title=\"Virome\">Virome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\"/><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" title=\"Template:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" title=\"Template talk:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures&amp;action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Life\" title=\"Life\">Life</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Non-cellular_life\" title=\"Non-cellular life\">non-cellular life</a>, and comparable structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Cellular life</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">\"<a href=\"/wiki/Prokaryota\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Prokaryota\">Prokaryota</a>\"</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\">Bacteria</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitochondrion\" title=\"Mitochondrion\">Mitochondrion</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">Plastid</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryota\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eukaryota\">Eukaryota</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Animalia\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Animalia\">Animalia</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungi\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fungi\">Fungi</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant\" title=\"Plant\">Plantae</a></li>\n<li>'<a href=\"/wiki/Protista\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Protista\">Protista</a>'</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><i><a href=\"/wiki/Incertae_sedis\" title=\"Incertae sedis\">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Parakaryon_myojinensis\" title=\"Parakaryon myojinensis\">Parakaryon</a></i></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nanobacterium\" title=\"Nanobacterium\">Nanobacterium</a> (?)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Non-cellular life</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Virus</a><br /><small>Incl.: <a href=\"/wiki/Viroid\" title=\"Viroid\">viroids</a>,<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">satellites</a>,<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Virophage\" title=\"Virophage\">virophages</a>,<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Virusoid\" title=\"Virusoid\">virusoids</a></small></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Realms</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Adnaviria\" title=\"Adnaviria\">Adnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Duplodnaviria\" title=\"Duplodnaviria\">Duplodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Monodnaviria\" title=\"Monodnaviria\">Monodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Riboviria\" title=\"Riboviria\">Riboviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyviria\" title=\"Ribozyviria\">Ribozyviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Varidnaviria\" title=\"Varidnaviria\">Varidnaviria</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Unassigned</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Classes</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"><i><a href=\"/wiki/Naldaviricetes\" title=\"Naldaviricetes\">Naldaviricetes</a></i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Families</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Alphasatellitidae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Alphasatellitidae\">Alphasatellitidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ampullaviridae\" title=\"Ampullaviridae\">Ampullaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Anelloviridae\" title=\"Anelloviridae\">Anelloviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Avsunviroidae\" title=\"Avsunviroidae\">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Bicaudaviridae\" title=\"Bicaudaviridae\">Bicaudaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Clavaviridae\" title=\"Clavaviridae\">Clavaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Finnlakeviridae\" title=\"Finnlakeviridae\">Finnlakeviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Fuselloviridae\" title=\"Fuselloviridae\">Fuselloviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Globuloviridae\" title=\"Globuloviridae\">Globuloviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Guttaviridae\" title=\"Guttaviridae\">Guttaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Halspiviridae\" title=\"Halspiviridae\">Halspiviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ovaliviridae\" title=\"Ovaliviridae\">Ovaliviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmaviridae\" title=\"Plasmaviridae\">Plasmaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Polydnaviridae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polydnaviridae\">Polydnaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Portogloboviridae\" title=\"Portogloboviridae\">Portogloboviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Pospiviroidae\" title=\"Pospiviroidae\">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Spiraviridae\" title=\"Spiraviridae\">Spiraviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Thaspiviridae\" title=\"Thaspiviridae\">Thaspiviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Tolecusatellitidae\" title=\"Tolecusatellitidae\">Tolecusatellitidae</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Genera</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Dinodnavirus\" title=\"Dinodnavirus\">Dinodnavirus</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizidiovirus\" title=\"Rhizidiovirus\">Rhizidiovirus</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Nanobe\" title=\"Nanobe\">Nanobe</a> (?)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Comparable<br />structures</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Biological_dark_matter\" title=\"Biological dark matter\">Biological dark matter</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bio-like_structure\" title=\"Bio-like structure\">Bio-like structure</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cancer_cell\" title=\"Cancer cell\">Cancer cell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/HeLa\" title=\"HeLa\">HeLa</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer\" title=\"Clonally transmissible cancer\">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cosmid\" title=\"Cosmid\">Cosmid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle\" title=\"Defective interfering particle\">Defective interfering particle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms\" title=\"Earliest known life forms\">Earliest known life forms</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/LUCA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"LUCA\">LUCA</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element\" title=\"Endogenous viral element\">Endogenous viral element</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fosmid\" title=\"Fosmid\">Fosmid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Integrative_and_conjugative_element\" title=\"Integrative and conjugative element\">Integrative and conjugative element</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phagemid\" title=\"Phagemid\">Phagemid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">Plasmid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Prion\" title=\"Prion\">Prion</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungal_prion\" title=\"Fungal prion\">Fungal prion</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Protocell\" title=\"Protocell\">Protocell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Coacervate\" title=\"Coacervate\">Coacervate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Proteinoid\" title=\"Proteinoid\">Proteinoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer\" title=\"Model lipid bilayer\">Model lipid bilayer</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Jeewanu\" title=\"Jeewanu\">Jeewanu</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sulphobes\" title=\"Sulphobes\">Sulphobe</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>Retroelements not elsewhere classified\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Retron\" title=\"Retron\">Retron</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Diversity-generating_retroelement\" title=\"Diversity-generating retroelement\">Diversity-generating retroelement</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Telomerase_reverse_transcriptase\" title=\"Telomerase reverse transcriptase\">Telomerase reverse transcriptase</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase-related_cellular_gene\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene\">Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyme\" title=\"Ribozyme\">Ribozyme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Spiegelman%27s_Monster\" title=\"Spiegelman&#39;s Monster\">Spiegelman's Monster</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Tandem_repeat\" title=\"Tandem repeat\">Tandem repeat</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transposable_element\" title=\"Transposable element\">Transposable element</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Retroposon\" title=\"Retroposon\">Retroposon</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transpoviron\" title=\"Transpoviron\">Transpoviron</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\"/><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1038841319\">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox authority-control\" aria-labelledby=\"Authority_control_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><div id=\"Authority_control_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:Authority_control\" title=\"Help:Authority control\">Authority control</a> <a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808#identifiers\" title=\"Edit this at Wikidata\"><img alt=\"Edit this at Wikidata\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"10\" height=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: text-top\" class=\"noprint\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"20\" data-file-height=\"20\" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">International</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1167771/\">FAST</a></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">National</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Virus\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&amp;authority_id=XX527219\">Spain</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Virus\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11938341t\">France</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Virus\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11938341t\">BnF data</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Viren\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4063589-2\">Germany</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&amp;local_base=NLX10&amp;find_code=UID&amp;request=987007541431905171\">Israel</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85143833\">United States</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"V\u012brusi\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&amp;local_base=lnc10&amp;doc_number=000094794&amp;P_CON_LNG=ENG\">Latvia</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560678\">Japan</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"viry\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=ph116578&amp;CON_LNG=ENG\">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n</p>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Taxon_identifiers\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Taxon_identifiers\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;text-align: left;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers\" title=\"Help:Taxon identifiers\">Taxon identifiers</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikidata\" title=\"Wikidata\">Wikidata</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"external\"><a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikidata:Q808\">Q808</a></span></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikispecies\" title=\"Wikispecies\">Wikispecies</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"external\"><a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Virus\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Virus\">Virus</a></span></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System\" title=\"Barcode of Life Data System\">BOLD</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=782766\">782766</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life\" title=\"Encyclopedia of Life\">EoL</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://eol.org/pages/5006\">5006</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility\" title=\"Global Biodiversity Information Facility\">GBIF</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.gbif.org/species/8\">8</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/INaturalist\" title=\"INaturalist\">iNaturalist</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/131236\">131236</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information\" title=\"National Center for Biotechnology Information\">NCBI</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&amp;id=10239\">10239</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species\" title=\"World Register of Marine Species\">WoRMS</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&amp;id=10\">10</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1130092004\">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class=\"portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered\" role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\"><span class=\"portal-bar-header\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals\" title=\"Wikipedia:Contents/Portals\">Portals</a>:</span><ul class=\"portal-bar-content\"><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"21\" height=\"15\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"629\" data-file-height=\"445\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Biology\" title=\"Portal:Biology\">Biology</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/21px-Tree_of_life.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"21\" height=\"17\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/42px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"915\" data-file-height=\"760\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology\" title=\"Portal:Evolutionary biology\">Evolutionary biology</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"8\" height=\"19\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"107\" data-file-height=\"250\" />&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Medicine\" title=\"Portal:Medicine\">Medicine</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"128\" data-file-height=\"128\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Science\" title=\"Portal:Science\">Science</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/19px-Sida-aids.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/29px-Sida-aids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/38px-Sida-aids.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"290\" data-file-height=\"290\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Viruses\" title=\"Portal:Viruses\">Viruses</a></li></ul></div></div>",
    "request": "Virus",
    "cleaned_content": "<div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Infectious agent that replicates in cells</div>\n</style><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about the type of pathogen. For the type of malware, see <a href=\"/wiki/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\">Computer virus</a>. For other uses, see <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig\" title=\"Virus (disambiguation)\">Virus (disambiguation)</a>.</div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n</p>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see <a href=\"/wiki/Introduction_to_viruses\" title=\"Introduction to viruses\">Introduction to viruses</a>.</div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n\n</p>\n<table class=\"infobox biota\" style=\"text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)\">Virus\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"&quot;Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2&quot;\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/220px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/330px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/440px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"2048\" data-file-height=\"2048\" /></a>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center; font-size: 88%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\">SARS-CoV-2</a>, a member of the subfamily <i><a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirinae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Coronavirinae\">Coronavirinae</a></i>\n</td></tr>\n\n\n\n\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)\"><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">Virus classification</a> <span class=\"plainlinks\" style=\"font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Virus\" title=\"e\"><img alt=\"e\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" data-file-width=\"16\" data-file-height=\"16\" /></a></span>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>(unranked):\n</td>\n<td><b>Virus</b>\n</td></tr>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)\"><a href=\"/wiki/Realm_(virology)\" title=\"Realm (virology)\">Realms</a>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: left\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Adnaviria\" title=\"Adnaviria\">Adnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Duplodnaviria\" title=\"Duplodnaviria\">Duplodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Monodnaviria\" title=\"Monodnaviria\">Monodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Riboviria\" title=\"Riboviria\">Riboviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyviria\" title=\"Ribozyviria\">Ribozyviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Varidnaviria\" title=\"Varidnaviria\">Varidnaviria</a></i></li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n</tbody></table>\n<p>A <b>virus</b> is a <a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/submicroscopic\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:submicroscopic\">submicroscopic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Infectious_agent\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Infectious agent\">infectious agent</a> that replicates only inside the living <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_(biology)\" title=\"Cell (biology)\">cells</a> of an <a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">organism</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-NG-20200415_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NG-20200415-1\">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> Viruses infect all <a href=\"/wiki/Life_forms\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Life forms\">life forms</a>, from animals and plants to <a href=\"/wiki/Microorganism\" title=\"Microorganism\">microorganisms</a>, including <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\">bacteria</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">archaea</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16984643-2\">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-NYT-20210226_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NYT-20210226-3\">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> Since <a href=\"/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanovsky\" title=\"Dmitri Ivanovsky\">Dmitri Ivanovsky</a>'s 1892 article describing a non-bacterial <a href=\"/wiki/Pathogen\" title=\"Pathogen\">pathogen</a> infecting tobacco plants and the discovery of the <a href=\"/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Tobacco mosaic virus\">tobacco mosaic virus</a> by <a href=\"/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck\" title=\"Martinus Beijerinck\">Martinus Beijerinck</a> in 1898,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock-4\">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> more than 9,000 of the millions of <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_species\" title=\"List of virus species\">virus species</a> have been described in detail.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ictv2021_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ictv2021-5\">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384-6\">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are found in almost every <a href=\"/wiki/Ecosystem\" title=\"Ecosystem\">ecosystem</a> on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Lawrence_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lawrence-7\">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> The study of viruses is known as <a href=\"/wiki/Virology\" title=\"Virology\">virology</a>, a subspeciality of <a href=\"/wiki/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\">microbiology</a>.\n</p><p>When infected, a <a href=\"/wiki/Host_cell\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Host cell\">host cell</a> is often forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus. When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent viral particles, or <i><b>virions</b></i>, consisting of (i) the <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_material\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Genetic material\">genetic material</a>, i.e., long <a href=\"/wiki/Molecule\" title=\"Molecule\">molecules</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/DNA\" title=\"DNA\">DNA</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> that encode the structure of the proteins by which the virus acts; (ii) a <a href=\"/wiki/Protein\" title=\"Protein\">protein</a> coat, the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">capsid</a></i>, which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases (iii) an outside <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">envelope</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid\" title=\"Lipid\">lipids</a>. The shapes of these virus particles range from simple <a href=\"/wiki/Helix\" title=\"Helix\">helical</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Icosahedron\" title=\"Icosahedron\">icosahedral</a> forms to more complex structures. Most virus species have virions too small to be seen with an <a href=\"/wiki/Optical_microscope\" title=\"Optical microscope\">optical microscope</a> and are one-hundredth the size of most bacteria.\n</p><p>The origins of viruses in the <a href=\"/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Evolutionary history of life\">evolutionary history of life</a> are unclear: some may have evolved from <a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">plasmids</a>\u2014pieces of DNA that can move between cells\u2014while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of <a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer\" title=\"Horizontal gene transfer\">horizontal gene transfer</a>, which increases <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_diversity\" title=\"Genetic diversity\">genetic diversity</a> in a way analogous to <a href=\"/wiki/Sexual_reproduction\" title=\"Sexual reproduction\">sexual reproduction</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Canchaya_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Canchaya-9\">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are considered by some <a href=\"/wiki/Biologist\" title=\"Biologist\">biologists</a> to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\">natural selection</a>, although they lack the key characteristics, such as cell structure, that are generally considered necessary criteria for <a href=\"/wiki/Life#Biology\" title=\"Life\">defining life</a>. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-10\">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> and as <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_replication\" title=\"Viral replication\">replicators</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid26965225_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid26965225-11\">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Pathogen_transmission\" title=\"Pathogen transmission\">Viruses spread</a> in many ways. One transmission pathway is through disease-bearing organisms known as <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vector (epidemiology)\">vectors</a>: for example, viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on <a href=\"/wiki/Plant_sap\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Plant sap\">plant sap</a>, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Aphid\" title=\"Aphid\">aphids</a>; and viruses in animals can be carried by <a href=\"/wiki/Hematophagy\" title=\"Hematophagy\">blood-sucking</a> insects. Many viruses, including <a href=\"/wiki/Influenza\" title=\"Influenza\">influenza viruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/SARS-CoV-2\" title=\"SARS-CoV-2\">SARS-CoV-2</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chickenpox\" title=\"Chickenpox\">chickenpox</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Smallpox\" title=\"Smallpox\">smallpox</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Measles\" title=\"Measles\">measles</a>, spread <a href=\"/wiki/Airborne_transmission\" title=\"Airborne transmission\">in the air</a> by coughing and sneezing. <a href=\"/wiki/Norovirus\" title=\"Norovirus\">Norovirus</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Rotavirus\" title=\"Rotavirus\">rotavirus</a>, common causes of viral <a href=\"/wiki/Gastroenteritis\" title=\"Gastroenteritis\">gastroenteritis</a>, are transmitted by the <a href=\"/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route\" title=\"Fecal\u2013oral route\">faecal\u2013oral route</a>, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water. The <a href=\"/wiki/Infectious_dose\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Infectious dose\">infectious dose</a> of norovirus required to produce infection in humans is fewer than 100 particles.<sup id=\"cite_ref-robilotti15_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-robilotti15-12\">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/HIV\" title=\"HIV\">HIV</a> is one of several viruses <a href=\"/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection\" title=\"Sexually transmitted infection\">transmitted through sexual contact</a> and by exposure to infected blood. The variety of host cells that a virus can infect is called its <a href=\"/wiki/Host_specificity\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Host specificity\"><i>host range</i></a>. This can be narrow, meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species, or broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many.<sup id=\"cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Viral infections in animals provoke an <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_response\" title=\"Immune response\">immune response</a> that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by <a href=\"/wiki/Vaccine\" title=\"Vaccine\">vaccines</a>, which confer an <a href=\"/wiki/Immunity_(medical)\" title=\"Immunity (medical)\">artificially acquired immunity</a> to the specific viral infection. Some viruses, including those that cause <a href=\"/wiki/HIV/AIDS\" title=\"HIV/AIDS\">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection\" title=\"Human papillomavirus infection\">HPV infection</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_hepatitis\" title=\"Viral hepatitis\">viral hepatitis</a>, evade these immune responses and result in <a href=\"/wiki/Chronic_(medical)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chronic (medical)\">chronic</a> infections. Several classes of <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">antiviral drugs</a> have been developed.\n</p>\n<div id=\"toc\" class=\"toc\" role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"mw-toc-heading\"><input type=\"checkbox\" role=\"button\" id=\"toctogglecheckbox\" class=\"toctogglecheckbox\" style=\"display:none\" /><div class=\"toctitle\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><h2 id=\"mw-toc-heading\">Contents</h2><span class=\"toctogglespan\"><label class=\"toctogglelabel\" for=\"toctogglecheckbox\"></label></span></div>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-1\"><a href=\"#Etymology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Etymology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-2\"><a href=\"#Origins\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Origins</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-3\"><a href=\"#Microbiology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Microbiology</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-4\"><a href=\"#Life_properties\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Life properties</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-5\"><a href=\"#Structure\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Structure</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-6\"><a href=\"#Giant_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.2.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Giant viruses</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-7\"><a href=\"#Genome\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genome</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-8\"><a href=\"#Genome_size\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.3.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genome size</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-9\"><a href=\"#Genetic_mutation_and_recombination\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genetic mutation and recombination</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-10\"><a href=\"#Replication_cycle\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Replication cycle</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-11\"><a href=\"#Genome_replication\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Genome replication</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-12\"><a href=\"#Cytopathic_effects_on_the_host_cell\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cytopathic effects on the host cell</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-13\"><a href=\"#Dormant_and_latent_infections\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Dormant and latent infections</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-14\"><a href=\"#Host_range\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Host range</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-15\"><a href=\"#Novel_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3.10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Novel viruses</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-16\"><a href=\"#Classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Classification</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-17\"><a href=\"#ICTV_classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">ICTV classification</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-18\"><a href=\"#Baltimore_classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Baltimore classification</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-19\"><a href=\"#Role_in_human_disease\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Role in human disease</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-20\"><a href=\"#Epidemiology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Epidemiology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-21\"><a href=\"#Epidemics_and_pandemics\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Epidemics and pandemics</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-22\"><a href=\"#Cancer\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cancer</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-23\"><a href=\"#Host_defence_mechanisms\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Host defence mechanisms</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-24\"><a href=\"#Prevention_and_treatment\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Prevention and treatment</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-25\"><a href=\"#Vaccines\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.5.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Vaccines</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-26\"><a href=\"#Antiviral_drugs\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5.5.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Antiviral drugs</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-27\"><a href=\"#Infection_in_other_species\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Infection in other species</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-28\"><a href=\"#Animal_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Animal viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-29\"><a href=\"#Plant_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Plant viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-30\"><a href=\"#Bacterial_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bacterial viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-31\"><a href=\"#Archaeal_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Archaeal viruses</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-32\"><a href=\"#Role_in_aquatic_ecosystems\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Role in aquatic ecosystems</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-33\"><a href=\"#Role_in_evolution\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Role in evolution</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-34\"><a href=\"#Applications\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Applications</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-35\"><a href=\"#Life_sciences_and_medicine\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Life sciences and medicine</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-36\"><a href=\"#Virotherapy\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.1.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Virotherapy</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-37\"><a href=\"#Materials_science_and_nanotechnology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Materials science and nanotechnology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-38\"><a href=\"#Synthetic_viruses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Synthetic viruses</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-39\"><a href=\"#Weapons\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Weapons</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-40\"><a href=\"#See_also\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">See also</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-41\"><a href=\"#References\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11</span> <span class=\"toctext\">References</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-42\"><a href=\"#Notes\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Notes</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-43\"><a href=\"#Bibliography\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bibliography</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-44\"><a href=\"#External_links\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12</span> <span class=\"toctext\">External links</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Etymology\">Etymology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1\" title=\"Edit section: Etymology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Plural_form_of_words_ending_in_-us\" title=\"Plural form of words ending in -us\">Plural form of words ending in -us</a></div>\n<p>The word is from the Latin neuter <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">v\u012brus</i></span> referring to <a href=\"/wiki/Poison\" title=\"Poison\">poison</a> and other noxious liquids, from the same <a href=\"/wiki/Indo-European_languages\" title=\"Indo-European languages\">Indo-European base</a> as <a href=\"/wiki/Sanskrit\" title=\"Sanskrit\">Sanskrit</a> <span title=\"Sanskrit-language text\"><i lang=\"sa\">vi\u1e63a</i></span>, <a href=\"/wiki/Avestan\" title=\"Avestan\">Avestan</a> <span title=\"Avestan-language text\"><i lang=\"ae\">v\u012b\u0161a</i></span>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Ancient_Greek\" title=\"Ancient Greek\">ancient Greek</a> <span title=\"Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text\"><span lang=\"grc\">\u1f30\u03cc\u03c2</span></span> (all meaning 'poison'), first <a href=\"/wiki/Attested_language\" title=\"Attested language\">attested</a> in English in 1398 in <a href=\"/wiki/John_Trevisa\" title=\"John Trevisa\">John Trevisa's</a> translation of <a href=\"/wiki/Bartholomeus_Anglicus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bartholomeus Anglicus\">Bartholomeus Anglicus's</a> <i>De Proprietatibus Rerum</i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary-15\">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> <i>Virulent</i>, from Latin <i>virulentus</i> ('poisonous'), dates to c.&#160;1400.<sup id=\"cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup> A meaning of 'agent that causes infectious disease' is first recorded in 1728,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary-15\">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> long before the discovery of viruses by <a href=\"/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanovsky\" title=\"Dmitri Ivanovsky\">Dmitri Ivanovsky</a> in 1892. The English <a href=\"/wiki/Plural_form_of_words_ending_in_-us#Virus\" title=\"Plural form of words ending in -us\">plural</a> is <i>viruses</i> (sometimes also  <i>vira</i>),<sup id=\"cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup>  whereas the Latin word is a <a href=\"/wiki/Mass_noun\" title=\"Mass noun\">mass noun</a>, which has no <a href=\"/wiki/Classical_Latin\" title=\"Classical Latin\">classically</a> attested plural (<i>v\u012bra</i> is used in <a href=\"/wiki/Neo-Latin\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Neo-Latin\">Neo-Latin</a><sup id=\"cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup>). The adjective <i>viral</i> dates to 1948.<sup id=\"cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> The term <i>virion</i> (plural <i>virions</i>), which dates from 1959,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary2_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary2-21\">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> is also used to refer to a single viral particle that is released from the cell and is capable of infecting other cells of the same type.<sup id=\"cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Origins\">Origins</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2\" title=\"Edit section: Origins\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_evolution\" title=\"Viral evolution\">Viral evolution</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16494962_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16494962-23\">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup> The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils, so <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_biology\" title=\"Molecular biology\">molecular techniques</a> are used to investigate how they arose.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20660197-24\">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> In addition, viral genetic material occasionally integrates into the <a href=\"/wiki/Germline\" title=\"Germline\">germline</a> of the host organisms, by which they can be passed on <a href=\"/wiki/Vertical_transfer\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vertical transfer\">vertically</a> to the offspring of the host for many generations. This provides an invaluable source of information for <a href=\"/wiki/Paleovirology\" title=\"Paleovirology\">paleovirologists</a> to trace back ancient viruses that have existed up to millions of years ago. There are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses:<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31142823_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31142823-25\">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<dl><dt>Regressive hypothesis</dt>\n<dd>Viruses may have once been small cells that <a href=\"/wiki/Parasitism\" title=\"Parasitism\">parasitised</a> larger cells. Over time, genes not required by their parasitism were lost. The bacteria <a href=\"/wiki/Rickettsia\" title=\"Rickettsia\">rickettsia</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlamydia_(genus)\" title=\"Chlamydia (genus)\">chlamydia</a> are living cells that, like viruses, can reproduce only inside host cells. They lend support to this hypothesis, as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell. This is also called the 'degeneracy hypothesis',<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock16-26\">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup> or 'reduction hypothesis'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup></dd>\n<dt>Cellular origin hypothesis</dt>\n<dd>Some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that \"escaped\" from the genes of a larger organism. The escaped DNA could have come from <a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">plasmids</a> (pieces of naked DNA that can move between cells) or <a href=\"/wiki/Transposons\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Transposons\">transposons</a> (molecules of DNA that replicate and move around to different positions within the genes of the cell).<sup id=\"cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">&#91;29&#93;</a></sup> Once called <i>jumping genes</i>, transposons are examples of <a href=\"/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements\" title=\"Mobile genetic elements\">mobile genetic elements</a> and could be the origin of some viruses. They were discovered in maize by <a href=\"/wiki/Barbara_McClintock\" title=\"Barbara McClintock\">Barbara McClintock</a> in 1950.<sup id=\"cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup> This is sometimes called the 'vagrancy hypothesis',<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock16-26\">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> or the 'escape hypothesis'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup></dd>\n<dt>Co-evolution hypothesis</dt>\n<dd>This is also called the 'virus-first hypothesis'<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> and proposes that viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleic_acid\" title=\"Nucleic acid\">nucleic acid</a> at the same time that cells first appeared on Earth and would have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years. <a href=\"/wiki/Viroids\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Viroids\">Viroids</a> are molecules of RNA that are not classified as viruses because they lack a protein coat. They have characteristics that are common to several viruses and are often called <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification#Subviral_agents\" title=\"Virus classification\">subviral agents</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> Viroids are important pathogens of plants.<sup id=\"cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">&#91;33&#93;</a></sup> They do not code for proteins but interact with the host cell and use the host machinery for their replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18764915_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18764915-34\">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatitis_delta_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hepatitis delta virus\">hepatitis delta virus</a> of humans has an RNA <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genome</a> similar to viroids but has a protein coat derived from hepatitis B virus and cannot produce one of its own. It is, therefore, a defective virus. Although hepatitis delta virus genome may replicate independently once inside a host cell, it requires the help of hepatitis B virus to provide a protein coat so that it can be transmitted to new cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">&#91;35&#93;</a></sup> In similar manner, the <a href=\"/wiki/Sputnik_virophage\" title=\"Sputnik virophage\">sputnik virophage</a> is dependent on <a href=\"/wiki/Mimivirus\" title=\"Mimivirus\">mimivirus</a>, which infects the protozoan <i><a href=\"/wiki/Acanthamoeba\" title=\"Acanthamoeba\">Acanthamoeba</a> castellanii</i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18690211-36\">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> These viruses, which are dependent on the presence of other virus species in the host cell, are called '<a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">satellites</a>' and may represent evolutionary intermediates of viroids and viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<p>In the past, there were problems with all of these hypotheses: the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus-first hypothesis contravened the definition of viruses in that they require host cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the <a href=\"/wiki/Three-domain_system\" title=\"Three-domain system\">three domains</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-39\">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup> This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re-evaluate these three classical hypotheses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-39\">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The evidence for an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_world\" title=\"RNA world\">ancestral world of RNA</a> cells<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_26-40\">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences are giving a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different viruses and may help identify the ancestors of modern viruses. To date, such analyses have not proved which of these hypotheses is correct.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mahy_Gen_26-40\">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> It seems unlikely that all currently known viruses have a common ancestor, and viruses have probably arisen numerous times in the past by one or more mechanisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">&#91;41&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Microbiology\">Microbiology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3\" title=\"Edit section: Microbiology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_properties\">Life properties</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4\" title=\"Edit section: Life properties\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Scientific opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life or organic structures that interact with living organisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid26965225_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid26965225-11\">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\",<sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-10\">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> since they resemble organisms in that they possess <a href=\"/wiki/Genes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Genes\">genes</a>, evolve by <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\">natural selection</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17914905_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17914905-42\">&#91;42&#93;</a></sup> and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. Although they have genes, they do not have a cellular structure, which is often seen as the basic unit of life. Viruses do not have their own <a href=\"/wiki/Metabolism\" title=\"Metabolism\">metabolism</a> and require a host cell to make new products. They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20010599_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20010599-43\">&#91;43&#93;</a></sup>\u2014although some bacteria such as <a href=\"/wiki/Rickettsia\" title=\"Rickettsia\">rickettsia</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlamydia_(genus)\" title=\"Chlamydia (genus)\">chlamydia</a> are considered living organisms despite the same limitation.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18473699_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18473699-44\">&#91;44&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19016440_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19016440-45\">&#91;45&#93;</a></sup> Accepted forms of life use <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_division\" title=\"Cell division\">cell division</a> to reproduce, whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. They differ from <a href=\"/wiki/Self-organisation\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Self-organisation\">autonomous growth</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Crystallization\" title=\"Crystallization\">crystals</a> as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the <a href=\"/wiki/Origin_of_life\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Origin of life\">origin of life</a>, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly\" title=\"Molecular self-assembly\">self-assembling organic molecules</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16984643-2\">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5\" title=\"Edit section: Structure\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n</style><div class=\"thumb tmulti tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner multiimageinner\" style=\"width:204px;max-width:204px\"><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Virus_size.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Virus_size.png/200px-Virus_size.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"117\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Virus_size.png/300px-Virus_size.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Virus_size.png/400px-Virus_size.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"922\" data-file-height=\"538\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Virions of some of the most common human viruses with their relative size. The nucleic acids are not to scale.</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Hexon.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hexon.svg/200px-Hexon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"132\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hexon.svg/300px-Hexon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hexon.svg/400px-Hexon.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"439\" data-file-height=\"290\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Diagram of how a virus <a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">capsid</a> can be constructed using multiple copies of just two protein molecules</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:TMV_structure_simple.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TMV_structure_simple.png/200px-TMV_structure_simple.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"142\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TMV_structure_simple.png/300px-TMV_structure_simple.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TMV_structure_simple.png/400px-TMV_structure_simple.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1474\" data-file-height=\"1050\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of <a href=\"/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Tobacco mosaic virus\">tobacco mosaic virus</a>: <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> coiled in a helix of repeating protein sub-units</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg/200px-Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"80\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg/300px-Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg/400px-Icosahedral_Adenoviruses.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"889\" data-file-height=\"356\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of icosahedral <a href=\"/wiki/Adenovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adenovirus\">adenovirus</a>. Electron micrograph with an illustration to show shape</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Varicella_(Chickenpox)_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg/200px-Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg/300px-Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Varicella_%28Chickenpox%29_Virus_PHIL_1878_lores.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"367\" data-file-height=\"366\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of <a href=\"/wiki/Chickenpox\" title=\"Chickenpox\">chickenpox</a> virus. They have a lipid envelope</div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png/200px-CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"203\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png/300px-CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png/400px-CowpeaMosaicVirus3D.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"777\" data-file-height=\"789\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Structure of an icosahedral <a href=\"/wiki/Cowpea_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Cowpea mosaic virus\">cowpea mosaic virus</a></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:202px;max-width:202px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Ms2capsid_surface.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ms2capsid_surface.png/200px-Ms2capsid_surface.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ms2capsid_surface.png/300px-Ms2capsid_surface.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ms2capsid_surface.png/400px-Ms2capsid_surface.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1600\" data-file-height=\"1600\" /></a></div><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Bacteriophage <a href=\"/wiki/Escherichia_virus_MS2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Escherichia virus MS2\">Escherichia virus MS2</a> capsid. This spherical virus also has icosahedral symmetry.</div></div></div></div></div>\n<p>Viruses display a wide diversity of sizes and shapes, called '<a href=\"/wiki/Morphology_(biology)\" title=\"Morphology (biology)\">morphologies</a>'. In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria and more than a thousand bacteriophage viruses would fit inside an <i><a href=\"/wiki/Escherichia_coli\" title=\"Escherichia coli\">Escherichia coli</a></i> bacterium's cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">&#91;46&#93;</a></sup> Many viruses that have been studied are spherical and have a diameter between 20 and 300 <a href=\"/wiki/Nanometres\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Nanometres\">nanometres</a>. Some <a href=\"/wiki/Filovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Filovirus\">filoviruses</a>, which are filaments, have a total length of up to 1400&#160;nm; their diameters are only about 80&#160;nm.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier3355_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier3355-47\">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup> Most viruses cannot be seen with an <a href=\"/wiki/Optical_microscope\" title=\"Optical microscope\">optical microscope</a>, so scanning and transmission <a href=\"/wiki/Electron_microscope\" title=\"Electron microscope\">electron microscopes</a> are used to visualise them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> To increase the contrast between viruses and the background, electron-dense \"stains\" are used. These are solutions of <a href=\"/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)\" title=\"Salt (chemistry)\">salts</a> of heavy metals, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Tungsten\" title=\"Tungsten\">tungsten</a>, that scatter the electrons from regions covered with the stain. When virions are coated with stain (positive staining), fine detail is obscured. <a href=\"/wiki/Negative_staining\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negative staining\">Negative staining</a> overcomes this problem by staining the background only.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid1715774_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid1715774-49\">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A complete virus particle, known as a <i>virion</i>, consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a <a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">capsid</a>. These are formed from protein subunits called <a href=\"/wiki/Capsomere\" title=\"Capsomere\">capsomeres</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">&#91;50&#93;</a></sup> Viruses can have a <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid\" title=\"Lipid\">lipid</a> \"envelope\" derived from the host <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_membrane\" title=\"Cell membrane\">cell membrane</a>. The capsid is made from proteins encoded by the viral <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genome</a> and its shape serves as the basis for morphological distinction.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid14019094_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid14019094-51\">&#91;51&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid13309339_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid13309339-52\">&#91;52&#93;</a></sup> Virally-coded protein subunits will self-assemble to form a capsid, in general requiring the presence of the virus genome. Complex viruses code for proteins that assist in the construction of their capsid. Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleoprotein\" title=\"Nucleoprotein\">nucleoproteins</a>, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid. The capsid and entire virus structure can be mechanically (physically) probed through <a href=\"/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy\" title=\"Atomic force microscopy\">atomic force microscopy</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties-53\">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-virus-AFM-imaging_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-virus-AFM-imaging-54\">&#91;54&#93;</a></sup> In general, there are five main morphological virus types:\n</p>\n<dl><dt>Helical</dt>\n<dd>These viruses are composed of a single type of capsomere stacked around a central axis to form a <a href=\"/wiki/Helix\" title=\"Helix\">helical</a> structure, which may have a central cavity, or tube. This arrangement results in virions which can be short and highly rigid rods, or long and very flexible filaments. The genetic material (typically single-stranded RNA, but single-stranded DNA in some cases) is bound into the protein helix by interactions between the negatively charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein. Overall, the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it, and the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of capsomeres. The well-studied tobacco mosaic virus<sup id=\"cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup> and inovirus<sup id=\"cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> are examples of helical viruses.</dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Icosahedral</dt>\n<dd>Most animal viruses are icosahedral or near-spherical with chiral <a href=\"/wiki/Icosahedral_symmetry\" title=\"Icosahedral symmetry\">icosahedral symmetry</a>. A <a href=\"/wiki/Regular_icosahedron\" title=\"Regular icosahedron\">regular icosahedron</a> is the optimum way of forming a closed shell from identical subunits. The minimum number of capsomeres required for each triangular face is 3, which gives 60 for the icosahedron. Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than 60 capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry. To achieve this, the capsomeres at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomeres and are called pentons. Capsomeres on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called <a href=\"/wiki/Hexon_protein\" title=\"Hexon protein\">hexons</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup> Hexons are in essence flat and pentons, which form the 12 vertices, are curved. The same protein may act as the subunit of both the pentamers and hexamers or they may be composed of different proteins.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27045511_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27045511-58\">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Prolate</dt>\n<dd>This is an icosahedron elongated along the fivefold axis and is a common arrangement of the heads of bacteriophages. This structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end.<sup id=\"cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Enveloped</dt>\n<dd>Some species of virus <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">envelop</a> themselves in a modified form of one of the <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_membranes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cell membranes\">cell membranes</a>, either the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell or internal membranes such as a nuclear membrane or <a href=\"/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum\" title=\"Endoplasmic reticulum\">endoplasmic reticulum</a>, thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">viral envelope</a>. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome; the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present originate entirely from the host. <a href=\"/wiki/Influenza_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Influenza virus\">Influenza virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/HIV\" title=\"HIV\">HIV</a> (which causes <a href=\"/wiki/AIDS\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"AIDS\">AIDS</a>), and <a href=\"/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\">severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</a> (which causes <a href=\"/wiki/COVID-19\" title=\"COVID-19\">COVID-19</a>)<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32580969_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32580969-60\">&#91;60&#93;</a></sup> use this strategy. Most enveloped viruses are dependent on the envelope for their infectivity.<sup id=\"cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Complex</dt>\n<dd>These viruses possess a capsid that is neither purely helical nor purely icosahedral, and that may possess extra structures such as protein tails or a complex outer wall. Some bacteriophages, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Enterobacteria_phage_T4\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Enterobacteria phage T4\">Enterobacteria phage T4</a>, have a complex structure consisting of an icosahedral head bound to a helical tail, which may have a <a href=\"/wiki/Hexagon\" title=\"Hexagon\">hexagonal</a> base plate with protruding protein tail fibres. This tail structure acts like a molecular syringe, attaching to the bacterial host and then injecting the viral genome into the cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">&#91;62&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<p>The <a href=\"/wiki/Poxviridae\" title=\"Poxviridae\">poxviruses</a> are large, complex viruses that have an unusual morphology. The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disc structure known as a <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleoid\" title=\"Nucleoid\">nucleoid</a>. The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function. The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface. The whole virion is slightly <a href=\"/wiki/Pleomorphism_(microbiology)\" title=\"Pleomorphism (microbiology)\">pleomorphic</a>, ranging from ovoid to brick-shaped.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid4322005_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid4322005-63\">&#91;63&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Giant_viruses\">Giant viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6\" title=\"Edit section: Giant viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Giant_virus\" title=\"Giant virus\">Giant virus</a></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Mimivirus\" title=\"Mimivirus\">Mimivirus</a> is one of the largest characterised viruses, with a capsid diameter of 400&#160;nm. Protein filaments measuring 100&#160;nm project from the surface. The capsid appears hexagonal under an electron microscope, therefore the capsid is probably icosahedral.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Suzan-Monti2006_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Suzan-Monti2006-64\">&#91;64&#93;</a></sup> In 2011, researchers discovered the largest then known virus in samples of water collected from the ocean floor off the coast of Las Cruces, Chile. Provisionally named <i><a href=\"/wiki/Megavirus\" title=\"Megavirus\">Megavirus</a> chilensis</i>, it can be seen with a basic optical microscope.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid21987820_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid21987820-65\">&#91;65&#93;</a></sup> In 2013, the <a href=\"/wiki/Pandoravirus\" title=\"Pandoravirus\">Pandoravirus</a> genus was discovered in Chile and Australia, and has genomes about twice as large as Megavirus and Mimivirus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pandoravirus-66\">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> All giant viruses have dsDNA genomes and they are classified into several families: <i><a href=\"/wiki/Mimiviridae\" title=\"Mimiviridae\">Mimiviridae</a>, Pithoviridae, <a href=\"/wiki/Pandoraviridae\" title=\"Pandoraviridae\">Pandoraviridae</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Phycodnaviridae\" title=\"Phycodnaviridae\">Phycodnaviridae</a>,</i> and the <a href=\"/wiki/Mollivirus\" title=\"Mollivirus\">Mollivirus</a> genus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31052218_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31052218-67\">&#91;67&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Some viruses that infect <a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a> have complex structures unrelated to any other form of virus, with a wide variety of unusual shapes, ranging from spindle-shaped structures to viruses that resemble hooked rods, teardrops or even bottles. Other archaeal viruses resemble the tailed bacteriophages, and can have multiple tail structures.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Prangishvili_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Prangishvili-68\">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome\">Genome</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7\" title=\"Edit section: Genome\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable floatright\" width=\"275px\">\n<caption>Genomic diversity among viruses\n</caption>\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Property</th>\n<th>Parameters\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Nucleic acid</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>DNA</li>\n<li>RNA</li>\n<li>Both DNA and RNA (at different stages in the life cycle)</li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Shape</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Linear</li>\n<li>Circular</li>\n<li>Segmented</li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Strandedness</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Single-stranded (ss)</li>\n<li>Double-stranded (ds)</li>\n<li>Double-stranded with regions of single-strandedness</li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Sense (molecular biology)\">Sense</a></td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Positive sense (+)</li>\n<li>Negative sense (\u2212)</li>\n<li>Ambisense (+/\u2212)</li></ul>\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<p>An enormous variety of genomic structures can be seen among <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_species\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Viral species\">viral species</a>; as a group, they contain more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384-6\">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> although fewer than 7,000 types have been described in detail.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_p._49_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock_p._49-69\">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup> As of January 2021, the <a href=\"/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information\" title=\"National Center for Biotechnology Information\">NCBI</a> Virus genome database has more than 193,000 complete genome sequences,<sup id=\"cite_ref-nih_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nih-70\">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> but there are doubtlessly many more to be discovered.<sup id=\"cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">&#91;71&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">&#91;72&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A virus has either a <a href=\"/wiki/DNA\" title=\"DNA\">DNA</a> or an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> genome and is called a <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus\" title=\"DNA virus\">DNA virus</a> or an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus\" title=\"RNA virus\">RNA virus</a>, respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA genomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier9699_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier9699-73\">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Viral genomes are circular, as in the <a href=\"/wiki/Polyomavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polyomavirus\">polyomaviruses</a>, or linear, as in the <a href=\"/wiki/Adenoviridae\" title=\"Adenoviridae\">adenoviruses</a>. The type of nucleic acid is irrelevant to the shape of the genome. Among RNA viruses and certain DNA viruses, the genome is often divided up into separate parts, in which case it is called segmented. For RNA viruses, each segment often codes for only one protein and they are usually found together in one capsid. All segments are not required to be in the same virion for the virus to be infectious, as demonstrated by <a href=\"/wiki/Brome_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Brome mosaic virus\">brome mosaic virus</a> and several other plant viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier3355_47-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier3355-47\">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A viral genome, irrespective of nucleic acid type, is almost always either single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds). Single-stranded genomes consist of an unpaired nucleic acid, analogous to one-half of a ladder split down the middle. Double-stranded genomes consist of two complementary paired nucleic acids, analogous to a ladder. The virus particles of some virus families, such as those belonging to the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnaviridae\" title=\"Hepadnaviridae\">Hepadnaviridae</a></i>, contain a genome that is partially double-stranded and partially single-stranded.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier9699_73-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier9699-73\">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>For most viruses with RNA genomes and some with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes, the single strands are said to be either <a href=\"/wiki/Positive-sense\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Positive-sense\">positive-sense</a> (called the 'plus-strand') or <a href=\"/wiki/Negative-sense\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negative-sense\">negative-sense</a> (called the 'minus-strand'), depending on if they are complementary to the viral <a href=\"/wiki/Messenger_RNA\" title=\"Messenger RNA\">messenger RNA</a> (mRNA). Positive-sense viral RNA is in the same sense as viral mRNA and thus at least a part of it can be immediately <a href=\"/wiki/Translation_(genetics)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Translation (genetics)\">translated</a> by the host cell. Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase\" title=\"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase\">RNA-dependent RNA polymerase</a> before translation. DNA nomenclature for viruses with genomic ssDNA is similar to RNA nomenclature, in that positive-strand viral ssDNA is identical in sequence to the viral mRNA and is thus a coding strand, while negative-sense viral ssDNA is complementary to the viral mRNA and is thus a template strand.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Collier9699_73-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Collier9699-73\">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup> Several types of ssDNA and ssRNA viruses have genomes that are <a href=\"/wiki/Ambisense\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ambisense\">ambisense</a> in that transcription can occur off both strands in a double-stranded replicative intermediate. Examples include <a href=\"/wiki/Geminiviridae\" title=\"Geminiviridae\">geminiviruses</a>, which are ssDNA plant viruses and <a href=\"/wiki/Arenavirus\" title=\"Arenavirus\">arenaviruses</a>, which are ssRNA viruses of animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-isbn0-470-02387-2_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-isbn0-470-02387-2-74\">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome_size\">Genome size</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8\" title=\"Edit section: Genome size\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<p>Genome size varies greatly between species. The smallest\u2014the ssDNA circoviruses, family <i><a href=\"/wiki/Circoviridae\" title=\"Circoviridae\">Circoviridae</a></i>\u2014code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases;<sup id=\"cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> the largest\u2014the <a href=\"/wiki/Pandoravirus\" title=\"Pandoravirus\">pandoraviruses</a>\u2014have genome sizes of around two megabases which code for about 2500 proteins.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pandoravirus-66\">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> Virus genes rarely have <a href=\"/wiki/Intron\" title=\"Intron\">introns</a> and often are arranged in the genome so that they <a href=\"/wiki/Overlapping_gene\" title=\"Overlapping gene\">overlap</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-brandes_2016_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-brandes_2016-76\">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>In general, RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses because of a higher error-rate when replicating, and have a maximum upper size limit.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20660197-24\">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> Beyond this, errors when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive. To compensate, RNA viruses often have segmented genomes\u2014the genome is split into smaller molecules\u2014thus reducing the chance that an error in a single-component genome will incapacitate the entire genome. In contrast, DNA viruses generally have larger genomes because of the high fidelity of their replication enzymes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">&#91;77&#93;</a></sup> Single-strand DNA viruses are an exception to this rule, as mutation rates for these genomes can approach the extreme of the ssRNA virus case.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19264617_78-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19264617-78\">&#91;78&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genetic_mutation_and_recombination\">Genetic mutation and recombination</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9\" title=\"Edit section: Genetic mutation and recombination\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_geneticshift.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A cartoon showing how viral genes can be shuffled to form new viruses\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/220px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"269\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/330px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/440px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"426\" data-file-height=\"520\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_geneticshift.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Antigenic shift, or reassortment, can result in novel and highly pathogenic strains of <a href=\"/wiki/Human_flu\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Human flu\">human flu</a></div></div></div>\n<p>Viruses undergo genetic change by several mechanisms. These include a process called <a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_drift\" title=\"Antigenic drift\">antigenic drift</a> where individual bases in the DNA or RNA <a href=\"/wiki/Mutate\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mutate\">mutate</a> to other bases. Most of these <a href=\"/wiki/Point_mutations\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Point mutations\">point mutations</a> are \"silent\"\u2014they do not change the protein that the gene encodes\u2014but others can confer evolutionary advantages such as resistance to <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drugs\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antiviral drugs\">antiviral drugs</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22143798_79-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22143798-79\">&#91;79&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20375034_80-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20375034-80\">&#91;80&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_shift\" title=\"Antigenic shift\">Antigenic shift</a> occurs when there is a major change in the genome of the virus. This can be a result of <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_recombination\" title=\"Genetic recombination\">recombination</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Reassortment\" title=\"Reassortment\">reassortment</a>. When this happens with influenza viruses, <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemics\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pandemics\">pandemics</a> might result.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17115950_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17115950-81\">&#91;81&#93;</a></sup> RNA viruses often exist as <a href=\"/wiki/Quasispecies\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Quasispecies\">quasispecies</a> or swarms of viruses of the same species but with slightly different genome nucleoside sequences. Such quasispecies are a prime target for natural selection.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17578210_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17578210-82\">&#91;82&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses (or offspring) that have unique characteristics. This is called reassortment or 'viral sex'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">&#91;83&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_recombination\" title=\"Genetic recombination\">Genetic recombination</a> is a process by which a strand of DNA (or RNA) is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA (or RNA)  molecule. This can occur when viruses infect cells simultaneously and studies of <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_evolution\" title=\"Viral evolution\">viral evolution</a> have shown that recombination has been rampant in the species studied.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10573145_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10573145-84\">&#91;84&#93;</a></sup> Recombination is common to both RNA and DNA viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15578739_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15578739-85\">&#91;85&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10479778_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10479778-86\">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirus\" title=\"Coronavirus\">Coronaviruses</a> have a single-strand positive-sense <a href=\"/wiki/RNA\" title=\"RNA\">RNA</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genome</a>.  Replication of the genome is catalyzed by an <a href=\"/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase\" title=\"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase\">RNA-dependent RNA polymerase</a>.  The mechanism of <a href=\"/wiki/Homologous_recombination\" title=\"Homologous recombination\">recombination</a> used by coronaviruses likely involves template switching by the polymerase during genome replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">&#91;87&#93;</a></sup>  This process appears to be an adaptation for coping with genome damage.<sup id=\"cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">&#91;88&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Replication_cycle\">Replication cycle</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10\" title=\"Edit section: Replication cycle\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:HepC_replication.png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HepC_replication.png/220px-HepC_replication.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HepC_replication.png/330px-HepC_replication.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HepC_replication.png/440px-HepC_replication.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"960\" data-file-height=\"720\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:HepC_replication.png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>A typical virus replication cycle</div></div></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/220px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"191\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/330px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/440px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"2316\" data-file-height=\"2013\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Some bacteriophages inject their <a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">genomes</a> into bacterial cells (not to scale)</div></div></div>\n<p>Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid26119571_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid26119571-89\">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> When infected, the host cell is forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid29592895_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid29592895-90\">&#91;90&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Their life cycle differs greatly between species, but there are six basic stages in their life cycle:<sup id=\"cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">&#91;91&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Attachment</i> is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range and type of host cell of a virus. For example, HIV infects a limited range of human <a href=\"/wiki/Leucocytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Leucocytes\">leucocytes</a>. This is because its surface protein, <a href=\"/wiki/Gp120\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Gp120\">gp120</a>, specifically interacts with the <a href=\"/wiki/CD4\" title=\"CD4\">CD4</a> molecule\u2014a <a href=\"/wiki/Chemokine_receptor\" title=\"Chemokine receptor\">chemokine receptor</a>\u2014which is most commonly found on the surface of <a href=\"/wiki/CD4%2B\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"CD4+\">CD4+</a> <a href=\"/wiki/T-Cells\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"T-Cells\">T-Cells</a>. This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo changes that result in the <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion\" title=\"Lipid bilayer fusion\">fusion</a> of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid23737062_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid23737062-92\">&#91;92&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Penetration</i> or <i><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_entry\" title=\"Viral entry\">viral entry</a></i> follows attachment: Virions enter the host cell through receptor-mediated <a href=\"/wiki/Endocytosis\" title=\"Endocytosis\">endocytosis</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion\" title=\"Lipid bilayer fusion\">membrane fusion</a>. The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of <a href=\"/wiki/Cellulose\" title=\"Cellulose\">cellulose</a>, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall.<sup id=\"cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">&#91;93&#93;</a></sup> Nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called <a href=\"/wiki/Plasmodesma\" title=\"Plasmodesma\">plasmodesmata</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup> Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell. Given that bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size, some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall, while the viral capsid remains outside.<sup id=\"cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Uncoating</i> is a process in which the viral capsid is removed: This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end-result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27174165_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27174165-96\">&#91;96&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_replication\" title=\"Viral replication\">Replication</a></i> of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome. Replication involves the synthesis of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) from \"early\" genes (with exceptions for positive-sense RNA viruses), viral <a href=\"/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis\" title=\"Protein biosynthesis\">protein synthesis</a>, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression. This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: \"late\" gene expression is, in general, of structural or virion proteins.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid23231449_97-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid23231449-97\">&#91;97&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Assembly</i> \u2013 Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11451488_98-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11451488-98\">&#91;98&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><i>Release</i> \u2013 Viruses can be <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shedding\" title=\"Viral shedding\">released</a> from the host cell by <a href=\"/wiki/Lysis\" title=\"Lysis\">lysis</a>, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present: this is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a <a href=\"/wiki/Lysogenic_cycle\" title=\"Lysogenic cycle\">lysogenic cycle</a> where the viral genome is incorporated by <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_recombination\" title=\"Genetic recombination\">genetic recombination</a> into a specific place in the host's chromosome. The viral genome is then known as a \"<a href=\"/wiki/Provirus\" title=\"Provirus\">provirus</a>\" or, in the case of bacteriophages a \"<a href=\"/wiki/Prophage\" title=\"Prophage\">prophage</a>\".<sup id=\"cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">&#91;99&#93;</a></sup> Whenever the host divides, the viral genome is also replicated. The viral genome is mostly silent within the host. At some point, the provirus or prophage may give rise to the active virus, which may lyse the host cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup> Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) typically are released from the host cell by <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shedding\" title=\"Viral shedding\">budding</a>. During this process, the virus acquires its envelope, which is a modified piece of the host's plasma or other, internal membrane.<sup id=\"cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">&#91;101&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome_replication\">Genome replication</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11\" title=\"Edit section: Genome replication\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.\n</p>\n<dl><dt>DNA viruses</dt>\n<dd>The genome replication of most <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus\" title=\"DNA virus\">DNA viruses</a> takes place in the cell's <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_nucleus\" title=\"Cell nucleus\">nucleus</a>. If the cell has the appropriate receptor on its surface, these viruses enter the cell either by direct fusion with the cell membrane (e.g., herpesviruses) or\u2014more usually\u2014by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Most DNA viruses are entirely dependent on the host cell's DNA and RNA synthesising machinery and RNA processing machinery. Viruses with larger genomes may encode much of this machinery themselves. In eukaryotes, the viral genome must cross the cell's nuclear membrane to access this machinery, while in bacteria it need only enter the cell.<sup id=\"cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">&#91;102&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>RNA viruses</dt>\n<dd>Replication of <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus\" title=\"RNA virus\">RNA viruses</a> usually takes place in the <a href=\"/wiki/Cytoplasm\" title=\"Cytoplasm\">cytoplasm</a>. RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication. The <a href=\"/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Sense (molecular biology)\">polarity</a> (whether or not it can be used directly by ribosomes to make proteins) of single-stranded RNA viruses largely determines the replicative mechanism; the other major criterion is whether the genetic material is single-stranded or double-stranded. All RNA viruses use their own <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_replicase\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"RNA replicase\">RNA replicase</a> enzymes to create copies of their genomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">&#91;103&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<dl><dt>Reverse transcribing viruses</dt>\n<dd><a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcribing_viruses\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reverse transcribing viruses\">Reverse transcribing viruses</a> have ssRNA (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Retroviridae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Retroviridae\">Retroviridae</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Metaviridae\" title=\"Metaviridae\">Metaviridae</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Pseudoviridae\" title=\"Pseudoviridae\">Pseudoviridae</a></i>) or dsDNA (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Caulimoviridae\" title=\"Caulimoviridae\">Caulimoviridae</a></i>, and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnaviridae\" title=\"Hepadnaviridae\">Hepadnaviridae</a></i>) in their particles. Reverse transcribing viruses with RNA genomes (<a href=\"/wiki/Retrovirus\" title=\"Retrovirus\">retroviruses</a>) use a DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas those with DNA genomes (<a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA-RT virus\">pararetroviruses</a>) use an RNA intermediate during genome replication. Both types use a <a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase\" title=\"Reverse transcriptase\">reverse transcriptase</a>, or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase enzyme, to carry out the nucleic acid conversion. Retroviruses integrate the DNA produced by <a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcription\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reverse transcription\">reverse transcription</a> into the host genome as a provirus as a part of the replication process; pararetroviruses do not, although integrated genome copies of especially plant pararetroviruses can give rise to infectious virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16949329_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16949329-104\">&#91;104&#93;</a></sup> They are susceptible to <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">antiviral drugs</a> that inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme, e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Zidovudine\" title=\"Zidovudine\">zidovudine</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Lamivudine\" title=\"Lamivudine\">lamivudine</a>. An example of the first type is HIV, which is a retrovirus. Examples of the second type are the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnaviridae\" title=\"Hepadnaviridae\">Hepadnaviridae</a></i>, which includes Hepatitis B virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">&#91;105&#93;</a></sup></dd></dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cytopathic_effects_on_the_host_cell\">Cytopathic effects on the host cell</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12\" title=\"Edit section: Cytopathic effects on the host cell\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive.<sup id=\"cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">&#91;106&#93;</a></sup> These are called '<a href=\"/wiki/Cytopathic_effect\" title=\"Cytopathic effect\">cytopathic effects</a>'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">&#91;107&#93;</a></sup> Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell's surface membrane and <a href=\"/wiki/Apoptosis\" title=\"Apoptosis\">apoptosis</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10547702_108-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10547702-108\">&#91;108&#93;</a></sup> Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activities because of suppression by virus-specific proteins, not all of which are components of the virus particle.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18637511_109-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18637511-109\">&#91;109&#93;</a></sup> The distinction between cytopathic and harmless is gradual. Some viruses, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus\" title=\"Epstein\u2013Barr virus\">Epstein\u2013Barr virus</a>, can cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18035323_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18035323-110\">&#91;110&#93;</a></sup> while others, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Papillomavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Papillomavirus\">papillomaviruses</a>, are established causes of cancer.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19020360_111-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19020360-111\">&#91;111&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dormant_and_latent_infections\">Dormant and latent infections</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13\" title=\"Edit section: Dormant and latent infections\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_latency\" title=\"Virus latency\">latent</a> and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18164651_112-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18164651-112\">&#91;112&#93;</a></sup> This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with <a href=\"/wiki/Herpes_simplex\" title=\"Herpes simplex\">herpes viruses</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid6326635_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid6326635-113\">&#91;113&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid12076064_114-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid12076064-114\">&#91;114&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Host_range\">Host range</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14\" title=\"Edit section: Host range\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Viruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all the others put together.<sup id=\"cite_ref-isbn0-19-957485-5_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-isbn0-19-957485-5-115\">&#91;115&#93;</a></sup> They infect all types of cellular life including animals, plants, <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophage\" title=\"Bacteriophage\">bacteria</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Mycovirus\" title=\"Mycovirus\">fungi</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_p._49_69-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock_p._49-69\">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup> Different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of hosts and many are species-specific. Some, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Smallpox_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Smallpox virus\">smallpox virus</a> for example, can infect only one species\u2014in this case humans,<sup id=\"cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup> and are said to have a narrow <a href=\"/wiki/Host_specificity\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Host specificity\">host range</a>. Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range.<sup id=\"cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">&#91;117&#93;</a></sup> The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans.<sup id=\"cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">&#91;118&#93;</a></sup> The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single <a href=\"/wiki/Strain_(biology)\" title=\"Strain (biology)\">strain</a> of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called <a href=\"/wiki/Phage_typing\" title=\"Phage typing\">phage typing</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid20122382_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid20122382-119\">&#91;119&#93;</a></sup> The complete set of viruses in an organism or habitat is called the <a href=\"/wiki/Virome\" title=\"Virome\">virome</a>; for example, all human viruses constitute the <a href=\"/wiki/Human_virome\" title=\"Human virome\">human virome</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27698618_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27698618-120\">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Novel_viruses\">Novel viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15\" title=\"Edit section: Novel viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>A <b>novel virus</b> is one that has not previously been recorded. It can be a virus that is isolated from its <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_reservoir\" title=\"Natural reservoir\">natural reservoir</a> or isolated as the result of <a href=\"/wiki/Zoonosis\" title=\"Zoonosis\">spread to an animal or human host</a> where the virus had not been identified before. It can be an <a href=\"/wiki/Emergent_virus\" title=\"Emergent virus\">emergent virus</a>, one that represents a new virus, but it can also be an extant virus that has not been <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">previously identified</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22966141_121-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22966141-121\">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/SARS-CoV-2\" title=\"SARS-CoV-2\">SARS-CoV-2</a> coronavirus that caused the pandemic of covid  disease is an example of a novel virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32143502_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32143502-122\">&#91;122&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classification\">Classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16\" title=\"Edit section: Classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">Virus classification</a></div>\n<p><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Genogroup\"></span>\nClassification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962, <a href=\"/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lwoff\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Andr\u00e9 Lwoff\">Andr\u00e9 Lwoff</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Robert_Horne_(virologist)\" title=\"Robert Horne (virologist)\">Robert Horne</a>, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the <a href=\"/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy\" title=\"Linnaean taxonomy\">Linnaean</a> hierarchical system.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid14467544_123-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid14467544-123\">&#91;123&#93;</a></sup> This system based classification on <a href=\"/wiki/Phylum\" title=\"Phylum\">phylum</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Class_(biology)\" title=\"Class (biology)\">class</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Order_(biology)\" title=\"Order (biology)\">order</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Family_(biology)\" title=\"Family (biology)\">family</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Genus\" title=\"Genus\">genus</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Species\" title=\"Species\">species</a>. Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid13931895_124-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid13931895-124\">&#91;124&#93;</a></sup> In 1966, the <a href=\"/wiki/International_Committee_on_Taxonomy_of_Viruses\" title=\"International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses\">International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses</a> (ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the <a href=\"/wiki/Baltimore_classification\" title=\"Baltimore classification\">Baltimore classification</a> system has come to be used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16105179_125-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16105179-125\">&#91;125&#93;</a></sup> Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">&#91;126&#93;</a></sup> Additionally, some species within the same genus are grouped into a <b>genogroup</b>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid34226482_127-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid34226482-127\">&#91;127&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22286874_128-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22286874-128\">&#91;128&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ICTV_classification\">ICTV classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17\" title=\"Edit section: ICTV classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32341570_129-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32341570-129\">&#91;129&#93;</a></sup> Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied.<sup id=\"cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-130\">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup> As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_families_and_subfamilies\" title=\"List of virus families and subfamilies\">233 families, 168 subfamilies</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_genera\" title=\"List of virus genera\">2,606 genera, 84 subgenera</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_virus_species\" title=\"List of virus species\">10,434 species</a> of viruses have been defined by the ICTV.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ictv2021_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ictv2021-5\">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ictv2021_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ictv2021-5\">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Realm_(virology)\" title=\"Realm (virology)\">Realm</a> (<i>-viria</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subrealm (<i>-vira</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)\" title=\"Kingdom (biology)\">Kingdom</a> (<i>-virae</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subkingdom (<i>-virites</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Phylum_(biology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phylum (biology)\">Phylum</a> (<i>-viricota</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subphylum (<i>-viricotina</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Class_(biology)\" title=\"Class (biology)\">Class</a> (<i>-viricetes</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subclass (<i>-viricetidae</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Order_(biology)\" title=\"Order (biology)\">Order</a> (<i>-virales</i>)\n<dl><dd>Suborder (<i>-virineae</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Family_(biology)\" title=\"Family (biology)\">Family</a> (<i>-viridae</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subfamily (<i>-virinae</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Genus\" title=\"Genus\">Genus</a> (<i>-virus</i>)\n<dl><dd>Subgenus (<i>-virus</i>)\n<dl><dd><a href=\"/wiki/Species\" title=\"Species\">Species</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Baltimore_classification\">Baltimore classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18\" title=\"Edit section: Baltimore classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Baltimore_classification\" title=\"Baltimore classification\">Baltimore classification</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:332px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A diagram showing how the Baltimore Classification is based on a virus&#39;s DNA or RNA and method of mRNA synthesis\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg/330px-VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"330\" height=\"204\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg/495px-VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg/660px-VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"626\" data-file-height=\"387\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>The Baltimore Classification of viruses is based on the method of viral <a href=\"/wiki/MRNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"MRNA\">mRNA</a> synthesis</div></div></div>\n<p>The Nobel Prize-winning biologist <a href=\"/wiki/David_Baltimore\" title=\"David Baltimore\">David Baltimore</a> devised the <a href=\"/wiki/Baltimore_classification\" title=\"Baltimore classification\">Baltimore classification</a> system.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid4348509_131-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid4348509-131\">&#91;131&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid4377923_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid4377923-132\">&#91;132&#93;</a></sup> The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15078590_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15078590-133\">&#91;133&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid10486120_134-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid10486120-134\">&#91;134&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15183049_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15183049-135\">&#91;135&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of <a href=\"/wiki/MRNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"MRNA\">mRNA</a> production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use <a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase\" title=\"Reverse transcriptase\">reverse transcriptase</a> (RT). In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either <a href=\"/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Sense (molecular biology)\">sense</a> (+) or antisense (\u2212). This classification places viruses into seven groups:\n</p>\n<ul><li>I: <a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA virus\">dsDNA viruses</a> (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Adenovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adenovirus\">Adenoviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Herpesvirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Herpesvirus\">Herpesviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Poxvirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Poxvirus\">Poxviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>II: <a href=\"/wiki/SsDNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"SsDNA virus\">ssDNA viruses</a> (+ strand or \"sense\") DNA (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Parvovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parvovirus\">Parvoviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>III: <a href=\"/wiki/DsRNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsRNA virus\">dsRNA viruses</a> (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Reovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reovirus\">Reoviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>IV:<a href=\"/wiki/Positive-sense_ssRNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Positive-sense ssRNA virus\">(+)ssRNA viruses</a> (+ strand or sense) RNA (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirus\" title=\"Coronavirus\">Coronaviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Picornavirus\" title=\"Picornavirus\">Picornaviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Togavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Togavirus\">Togaviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>V: <a href=\"/wiki/Negative-sense_ssRNA_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negative-sense ssRNA virus\">(\u2212)ssRNA viruses</a> (\u2212 strand or antisense) RNA (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Orthomyxovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Orthomyxovirus\">Orthomyxoviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Rhabdovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhabdovirus\">Rhabdoviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>VI: <a href=\"/wiki/SsRNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"SsRNA-RT virus\">ssRNA-RT viruses</a> (+ strand or sense) RNA with DNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Retrovirus\" title=\"Retrovirus\">Retroviruses</a>)</li>\n<li>VII: <a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA-RT virus\">dsDNA-RT viruses</a> DNA with RNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. <a href=\"/wiki/Hepadnavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hepadnavirus\">Hepadnaviruses</a>)</li></ul>\n<p><br />\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_in_human_disease\">Role in human disease</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19\" title=\"Edit section: Role in human disease\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_disease\" title=\"Viral disease\">Viral disease</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A photograph of the upper body of a man labelled with the names of viruses that infect the different parts\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg/220px-Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"210\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg/330px-Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg/440px-Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1421\" data-file-height=\"1358\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Viral_infections_and_involved_species.svg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Overview of the main types of viral infection and the most notable species involved<sup id=\"cite_ref-Microbiology_136-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Microbiology-136\">&#91;136&#93;</a></sup></div></div></div>\n<p>Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the <a href=\"/wiki/Common_cold\" title=\"Common cold\">common cold</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Influenza\" title=\"Influenza\">influenza</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chickenpox\" title=\"Chickenpox\">chickenpox</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Cold_sores\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cold sores\">cold sores</a>. Many serious diseases such as <a href=\"/wiki/Rabies\" title=\"Rabies\">rabies</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus disease\">Ebola virus disease</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/HIV/AIDS\" title=\"HIV/AIDS\">AIDS (HIV)</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Avian_influenza\" title=\"Avian influenza\">avian influenza</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/SARS\" title=\"SARS\">SARS</a> are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of <a href=\"/wiki/Virulence\" title=\"Virulence\">virulence</a>. Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between <a href=\"/wiki/Human_herpesvirus_6\" title=\"Human herpesvirus 6\">human herpesvirus 6</a> (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as <a href=\"/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis\" title=\"Multiple sclerosis\">multiple sclerosis</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome\" title=\"Chronic fatigue syndrome\">chronic fatigue syndrome</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-&#80;MID_17276367_137-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PMID_17276367-137\">&#91;137&#93;</a></sup> There is controversy over whether the <a href=\"/wiki/Bornavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bornavirus\">bornavirus</a>, previously thought to cause <a href=\"/wiki/Neurology\" title=\"Neurology\">neurological</a> diseases in horses, could be responsible for <a href=\"/wiki/Psychiatry\" title=\"Psychiatry\">psychiatric</a> illnesses in humans.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Chen_1999_138-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chen_1999-138\">&#91;138&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which depends largely on the viral species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In <a href=\"/wiki/Multicellular_organism\" title=\"Multicellular organism\">multicellular organisms</a>, if enough cells die, the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although viruses cause disruption of healthy <a href=\"/wiki/Homeostasis\" title=\"Homeostasis\">homeostasis</a>, resulting in disease, they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the <a href=\"/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus\" title=\"Herpes simplex virus\">herpes simplex virus</a>, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. This is called latency<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17686862_139-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17686862-139\">&#91;139&#93;</a></sup> and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses, including Epstein\u2013Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and <a href=\"/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus\" title=\"Varicella zoster virus\">varicella zoster virus</a>, which causes chickenpox and <a href=\"/wiki/Shingles\" title=\"Shingles\">shingles</a>. Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-140\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-140\">&#91;140&#93;</a></sup> These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens, such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Yersinia_pestis\" title=\"Yersinia pestis\">Yersinia pestis</a></i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">&#91;141&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Some viruses can cause lifelong or <a href=\"/wiki/Chronic_(medical)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chronic (medical)\">chronic</a> infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17931183_142-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17931183-142\">&#91;142&#93;</a></sup> This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17664817_143-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17664817-143\">&#91;143&#93;</a></sup> In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be <a href=\"/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)\" title=\"Endemic (epidemiology)\">endemic</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17645465_144-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17645465-144\">&#91;144&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Epidemiology\">Epidemiology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20\" title=\"Edit section: Epidemiology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Viral <a href=\"/wiki/Epidemiology\" title=\"Epidemiology\">epidemiology</a> is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and control of virus infections in humans. Transmission of viruses can be vertical, which means from mother to child, or horizontal, which means from person to person. Examples of <a href=\"/wiki/Vertical_transmission\" title=\"Vertical transmission\">vertical transmission</a> include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is born already infected with the virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17825648_145-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17825648-145\">&#91;145&#93;</a></sup> Another, more rare, example is the <a href=\"/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus\" title=\"Varicella zoster virus\">varicella zoster virus</a>, which, although causing relatively mild infections in children and adults, can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11190597_146-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11190597-146\">&#91;146&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_transmission\" title=\"Horizontal transmission\">Horizontal transmission</a> is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28289251_147-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28289251-147\">&#91;147&#93;</a></sup> Horizontal transmission can occur when body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity, by exchange of saliva or when contaminated food or water is ingested. It can also occur when <a href=\"/wiki/Aerosol\" title=\"Aerosol\">aerosols</a> containing viruses are inhaled or by insect <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vector (epidemiology)\">vectors</a> such as when infected mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28289251_147-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28289251-147\">&#91;147&#93;</a></sup> Most types of viruses are restricted to just one or two of these mechanisms and they are referred to as \"respiratory viruses\" or \"enteric viruses\" and so forth. The rate or speed of transmission of viral infections depends on factors that include population density, the number of susceptible individuals, (i.e., those not immune),<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15627236_148-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15627236-148\">&#91;148&#93;</a></sup> the quality of healthcare and the weather.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16544901_149-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16544901-149\">&#91;149&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Epidemiology is used to break the chain of infection in populations during outbreaks of <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_disease\" title=\"Viral disease\">viral diseases</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">&#91;150&#93;</a></sup> Control measures are used that are based on knowledge of how the virus is transmitted. It is important to find the source, or sources, of the outbreak and to identify the virus. Once the virus has been identified, the chain of transmission can sometimes be broken by vaccines. When vaccines are not available, sanitation and disinfection can be effective. Often, infected people are isolated from the rest of the community, and those that have been exposed to the virus are placed in <a href=\"/wiki/Quarantine\" title=\"Quarantine\">quarantine</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">&#91;151&#93;</a></sup> To control the <a href=\"/wiki/2001_United_Kingdom_foot-and-mouth_outbreak\" title=\"2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak\">outbreak</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Foot-and-mouth_disease\" title=\"Foot-and-mouth disease\">foot-and-mouth disease</a> in cattle in Britain in 2001, thousands of cattle were slaughtered.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19091686_152-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19091686-152\">&#91;152&#93;</a></sup> Most viral infections of humans and other animals have <a href=\"/wiki/Incubation_period\" title=\"Incubation period\">incubation periods</a> during which the infection causes no signs or symptoms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">&#91;153&#93;</a></sup> Incubation periods for viral diseases range from a few days to weeks, but are known for most infections.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Shorspp_154-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Shorspp-154\">&#91;154&#93;</a></sup> Somewhat overlapping, but mainly following the incubation period, there is a period of communicability\u2014a time when an infected individual or animal is contagious and can infect another person or animal.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Shorspp_154-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Shorspp-154\">&#91;154&#93;</a></sup> This, too, is known for many viral infections, and knowledge of the length of both periods is important in the control of outbreaks.<sup id=\"cite_ref-155\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-155\">&#91;155&#93;</a></sup> When outbreaks cause an unusually high proportion of cases in a population, community, or region, they are called epidemics. If outbreaks spread worldwide, they are called <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemic\" title=\"Pandemic\">pandemics</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-156\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-156\">&#91;156&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Epidemics_and_pandemics\">Epidemics and pandemics</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21\" title=\"Edit section: Epidemics and pandemics\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"1918 flu pandemic\">1918 flu pandemic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/AIDS\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"AIDS\">AIDS</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus disease\">Ebola virus disease</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic\" title=\"COVID-19 pandemic\">COVID-19 pandemic</a></div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_epidemics\" title=\"List of epidemics\">List of epidemics</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"An electron micrograph of the virus that caused Spanish influenza\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/220px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"136\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/330px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/440px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"2126\" data-file-height=\"1312\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div><a href=\"/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy\" title=\"Transmission electron microscopy\">Transmission electron microscope</a> image of a recreated 1918 influenza virus</div></div></div>\n<p>A <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemic\" title=\"Pandemic\">pandemic</a> is a worldwide <a href=\"/wiki/Epidemic\" title=\"Epidemic\">epidemic</a>. The <a href=\"/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"1918 flu pandemic\">1918 flu pandemic</a>, which lasted until 1919, was a <a href=\"/wiki/Pandemic_Severity_Index\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pandemic Severity Index\">category 5</a> influenza pandemic caused by an unusually severe and deadly influenza A virus. The victims were often healthy young adults, in contrast to most influenza outbreaks, which predominantly affect juvenile, elderly, or otherwise-weakened patients.<sup id=\"cite_ref-157\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-157\">&#91;157&#93;</a></sup> Older estimates say it killed 40\u201350&#160;million people,<sup id=\"cite_ref-Patterson1_158-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Patterson1-158\">&#91;158&#93;</a></sup> while more recent research suggests that it may have killed as many as 100&#160;million people, or 5% of the world's population in 1918.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11875246_159-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11875246-159\">&#91;159&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Although viral pandemics are rare events, HIV\u2014which evolved from viruses found in monkeys and chimpanzees\u2014has been pandemic since at least the 1980s.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid29460740_160-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid29460740-160\">&#91;160&#93;</a></sup> During the 20th century there were four pandemics caused by influenza virus and those that occurred in 1918, 1957 and 1968 were severe.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid30180422_161-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid30180422-161\">&#91;161&#93;</a></sup> Most researchers believe that HIV originated in <a href=\"/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa\" title=\"Sub-Saharan Africa\">sub-Saharan Africa</a> during the 20th century;<sup id=\"cite_ref-Gao_162-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gao-162\">&#91;162&#93;</a></sup> it is now a pandemic, with an estimated 37.9&#160;million people now living with the disease worldwide.<sup id=\"cite_ref-UNAIDS_DATA_2019_163-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNAIDS_DATA_2019-163\">&#91;163&#93;</a></sup> There were about 770,000 deaths from AIDS in 2018.<sup id=\"cite_ref-UNAIDS_resources_164-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNAIDS_resources-164\">&#91;164&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Joint_United_Nations_Programme_on_HIV/AIDS\" title=\"Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS\">Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS</a> (UNAIDS) and the <a href=\"/wiki/World_Health_Organization\" title=\"World Health Organization\">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25&#160;million people since it was first recognised on 5 June 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16517997_165-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16517997-165\">&#91;165&#93;</a></sup> In 2007 there were 2.7&#160;million new HIV infections and 2&#160;million HIV-related deaths.<sup id=\"cite_ref-166\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-166\">&#91;166&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<div class=\"thumb tmulti tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner multiimageinner\" style=\"width:154px;max-width:154px\"><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:152px;max-width:152px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Ebola_virus_em.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ebola_virus_em.png/150px-Ebola_virus_em.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"212\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ebola_virus_em.png/225px-Ebola_virus_em.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Ebola_virus_em.png/300px-Ebola_virus_em.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"2043\" data-file-height=\"2887\" /></a></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:152px;max-width:152px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Marburg_virus.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Marburg_virus.jpg/150px-Marburg_virus.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"102\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Marburg_virus.jpg/225px-Marburg_virus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Marburg_virus.jpg/300px-Marburg_virus.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"700\" data-file-height=\"474\" /></a></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\" style=\"display:flex\"><div class=\"thumbcaption\">Ebola (top) and Marburg viruses (bottom)</div></div></div></div>\n<p>Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Filoviridae\" title=\"Filoviridae\">Filoviridae</a></i>. Filoviruses are filament-like viruses that cause <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever\" title=\"Viral hemorrhagic fever\">viral hemorrhagic fever</a>, and include <a href=\"/wiki/Ebolavirus\" title=\"Ebolavirus\">ebolaviruses</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Marburgvirus\" title=\"Marburgvirus\">marburgviruses</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Marburg_virus\" title=\"Marburg virus\">Marburg virus</a>, first discovered in 1967, attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in <a href=\"/wiki/Angola\" title=\"Angola\">Angola</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16775337_167-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16775337-167\">&#91;167&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus disease\">Ebola virus disease</a> has also caused <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_Ebola_outbreaks\" title=\"List of Ebola outbreaks\">intermittent outbreaks</a> with high mortality rates since 1976 when it was first identified. The worst and most recent one is the 2013\u20132016 <a href=\"/wiki/Ebola_virus_epidemic_in_West_Africa\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa\">West Africa epidemic</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-168\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-168\">&#91;168&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Except for smallpox, most pandemics are caused by newly evolved viruses. These <a href=\"/wiki/Emergent_virus\" title=\"Emergent virus\">\"emergent\"</a> viruses are usually mutants of less harmful viruses that have circulated previously either in humans or other animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-169\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-169\">&#91;169&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome (<a href=\"/wiki/SARS\" title=\"SARS\">SARS</a>) and <a href=\"/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Middle East respiratory syndrome\">Middle East respiratory syndrome</a> (MERS)  are caused by new types of <a href=\"/wiki/Coronavirus\" title=\"Coronavirus\">coronaviruses</a>. Other coronaviruses are known to cause mild infections in humans,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid22094080_170-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid22094080-170\">&#91;170&#93;</a></sup> so the virulence and rapid spread of SARS infections\u2014that by July 2003 had caused around 8,000 cases and 800 deaths\u2014was unexpected and most countries were not prepared.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28475794_171-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28475794-171\">&#91;171&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>A related coronavirus, <a href=\"/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\">severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2)</a>, thought to have originated in bats, emerged in <a href=\"/wiki/Wuhan\" title=\"Wuhan\">Wuhan</a>, China in November 2019 and spread rapidly around the world.  Infections with the virus caused the <a href=\"/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic\" title=\"COVID-19 pandemic\">COVID-19 pandemic</a> that started in 2020.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32143502_122-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32143502-122\">&#91;122&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32093211_172-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32093211-172\">&#91;172&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32109444_173-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32109444-173\">&#91;173&#93;</a></sup> Unprecedented restrictions in peacetime were placed on international travel,<sup id=\"cite_ref-174\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-174\">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> and <a href=\"/wiki/Curfews\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Curfews\">curfews</a> were imposed in several major cities worldwide in response to the pandemic.<sup id=\"cite_ref-175\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-175\">&#91;175&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cancer\">Cancer</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22\" title=\"Edit section: Cancer\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Oncovirus\" title=\"Oncovirus\">Oncovirus</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species. Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons (or animals). Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families, including both RNA and DNA viruses, and so there is no single type of \"<a href=\"/wiki/Oncovirus\" title=\"Oncovirus\">oncovirus</a>\" (an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses). The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19467474_176-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19467474-176\">&#91;176&#93;</a></sup> and mutations in the host.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18812503_177-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18812503-177\">&#91;177&#93;</a></sup> Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of <a href=\"/wiki/Human_papillomavirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Human papillomavirus\">human papillomavirus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatitis_B_virus\" title=\"Hepatitis B virus\">hepatitis B virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus\" title=\"Hepatitis C virus\">hepatitis C virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus\" title=\"Epstein\u2013Barr virus\">Epstein\u2013Barr virus</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus\" title=\"Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus\">Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Human T-lymphotropic virus\">human T-lymphotropic virus</a>. The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus (<a href=\"/wiki/Merkel_cell_polyomavirus\" title=\"Merkel cell polyomavirus\">Merkel cell polyomavirus</a>) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called <a href=\"/wiki/Merkel_cell_carcinoma\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Merkel cell carcinoma\">Merkel cell carcinoma</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid19395876_178-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid19395876-178\">&#91;178&#93;</a></sup>\nHepatitis viruses can develop into a chronic viral infection that leads to <a href=\"/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma\" title=\"Hepatocellular carcinoma\">liver cancer</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-179\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-179\">&#91;179&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-180\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-180\">&#91;180&#93;</a></sup> Infection by human T-lymphotropic virus can lead to <a href=\"/wiki/Tropical_spastic_paraparesis\" title=\"Tropical spastic paraparesis\">tropical spastic paraparesis</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Adult_T-cell_leukemia\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adult T-cell leukemia\">adult T-cell leukaemia</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-181\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-181\">&#91;181&#93;</a></sup> Human papillomaviruses are an established cause of cancers of <a href=\"/wiki/Cervix\" title=\"Cervix\">cervix</a>, skin, <a href=\"/wiki/Anus\" title=\"Anus\">anus</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Penis\" title=\"Penis\">penis</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-182\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-182\">&#91;182&#93;</a></sup> Within the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Herpesviridae\" title=\"Herpesviridae\">Herpesviridae</a></i>, <a href=\"/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus\" title=\"Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus\">Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus</a> causes <a href=\"/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma\" title=\"Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma\">Kaposi's sarcoma</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Primary_effusion_lymphoma\" title=\"Primary effusion lymphoma\">body-cavity lymphoma</a>, and Epstein\u2013Barr virus causes <a href=\"/wiki/Burkitt%27s_lymphoma\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Burkitt&#39;s lymphoma\">Burkitt's lymphoma</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma\">Hodgkin's lymphoma</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/B_cell\" title=\"B cell\">B</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Lymphoproliferative_disorders\" title=\"Lymphoproliferative disorders\">lymphoproliferative disorder</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma\" title=\"Nasopharyngeal carcinoma\">nasopharyngeal carcinoma</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-183\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-183\">&#91;183&#93;</a></sup> Merkel cell polyomavirus closely related to <a href=\"/wiki/SV40\" title=\"SV40\">SV40</a> and mouse polyomaviruses that have been used as animal models for cancer viruses for over 50 years.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18449881_184-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18449881-184\">&#91;184&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Host_defence_mechanisms\">Host defence mechanisms</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23\" title=\"Edit section: Host defence mechanisms\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_system\" title=\"Immune system\">Immune system</a></div>\n<p>The body's first line of defence against viruses is the <a href=\"/wiki/Innate_immune_system\" title=\"Innate immune system\">innate immune system</a>. This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non-specific manner. This means that the cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a generic way, but, unlike the <a href=\"/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system\" title=\"Adaptive immune system\">adaptive immune system</a>, it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Alberts_185-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Alberts-185\">&#91;185&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/RNA_interference\" title=\"RNA interference\">RNA interference</a> is an important innate defence against viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17693253_186-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17693253-186\">&#91;186&#93;</a></sup> Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule or molecules, which immediately bind to a protein complex called a <a href=\"/wiki/Dicer\" title=\"Dicer\">dicer</a> that cuts the RNA into smaller pieces. A biochemical pathway\u2014the <a href=\"/wiki/RNA-induced_silencing_complex\" title=\"RNA-induced silencing complex\">RISC complex</a>\u2014is activated, which ensures cell survival by degrading the viral mRNA. Rotaviruses have evolved to avoid this defence mechanism by not uncoating fully inside the cell, and releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid. Their genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15579070_187-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15579070-187\">&#91;187&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15010218_188-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15010218-188\">&#91;188&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>When the <a href=\"/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system\" title=\"Adaptive immune system\">adaptive immune system</a> of a <a href=\"/wiki/Vertebrate\" title=\"Vertebrate\">vertebrate</a> encounters a virus, it produces specific <a href=\"/wiki/Antibodies\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antibodies\">antibodies</a> that bind to the virus and often render it non-infectious. This is called <a href=\"/wiki/Humoral_immunity\" title=\"Humoral immunity\">humoral immunity</a>. Two types of antibodies are important. The first, called <a href=\"/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M\" title=\"Immunoglobulin M\">IgM</a>, is highly effective at neutralising viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called <a href=\"/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G\" title=\"Immunoglobulin G\">IgG</a>, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid8903801_189-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid8903801-189\">&#91;189&#93;</a></sup> IgG antibody is measured when tests for <a href=\"/wiki/Immunity_(medical)\" title=\"Immunity (medical)\">immunity</a> are carried out.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid9086126_190-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid9086126-190\">&#91;190&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Antibodies can continue to be an effective defence mechanism even after viruses have managed to gain entry to the host cell. A protein that is in cells, called <a href=\"/wiki/TRIM21\" title=\"TRIM21\">TRIM21</a>, can attach to the antibodies on the surface of the virus particle. This primes the subsequent destruction of the virus by the enzymes of the cell's <a href=\"/wiki/Proteosome\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Proteosome\">proteosome</a> system.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid21045130_191-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid21045130-191\">&#91;191&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"Two spherical rotavirus particles, one is coated with antibody which looks like many small birds, regularly spaced on the surface of the virus\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg/220px-Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"119\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg/330px-Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg/440px-Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1072\" data-file-height=\"579\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Rotavirus_with_antibody.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Two <a href=\"/wiki/Rotavirus\" title=\"Rotavirus\">rotaviruses</a>: the one on the right is coated with antibodies that prevent its attachment to cells and infecting them.</div></div></div>\n<p>A second defence of vertebrates against viruses is called <a href=\"/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity\" title=\"Cell-mediated immunity\">cell-mediated immunity</a> and involves immune cells known as <a href=\"/wiki/T_cells\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"T cells\">T cells</a>. The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by 'killer T' cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. Cells such as the <a href=\"/wiki/Macrophage\" title=\"Macrophage\">macrophage</a> are specialists at this <a href=\"/wiki/Antigen_presentation\" title=\"Antigen presentation\">antigen presentation</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17725500_192-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17725500-192\">&#91;192&#93;</a></sup> The production of <a href=\"/wiki/Interferon\" title=\"Interferon\">interferon</a> is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11256746_193-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11256746-193\">&#91;193&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response in this way. HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. This is known as \"escape mutation\" as the viral epitopes escape recognition by the host immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration, blockade of <a href=\"/wiki/Antigen_presentation\" title=\"Antigen presentation\">antigen presentation</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Cytokine\" title=\"Cytokine\">cytokine</a> resistance, evasion of <a href=\"/wiki/Natural_killer_cell\" title=\"Natural killer cell\">natural killer cell</a> activities, escape from <a href=\"/wiki/Apoptosis\" title=\"Apoptosis\">apoptosis</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_shift\" title=\"Antigenic shift\">antigenic shift</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15297608_194-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15297608-194\">&#91;194&#93;</a></sup> Other viruses, called '<a href=\"/wiki/Neurotropic_virus\" title=\"Neurotropic virus\">neurotropic viruses</a>', are disseminated by neural spread where the immune system may be unable to reach them due to <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_privilege\" title=\"Immune privilege\">immune privilege</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid25015488_195-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid25015488-195\">&#91;195&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Prevention_and_treatment\">Prevention and treatment</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24\" title=\"Edit section: Prevention and treatment\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general. The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are <a href=\"/wiki/Vaccination\" title=\"Vaccination\">vaccinations</a> to provide immunity to infection, and <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drugs\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antiviral drugs\">antiviral drugs</a> that selectively interfere with viral replication.\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Vaccines\">Vaccines</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25\" title=\"Edit section: Vaccines\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Vaccination\" title=\"Vaccination\">Vaccination</a></div>\n<p>Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as <a href=\"/wiki/Polio\" title=\"Polio\">polio</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Measles\" title=\"Measles\">measles</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Mumps\" title=\"Mumps\">mumps</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Rubella\" title=\"Rubella\">rubella</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17068034_196-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17068034-196\">&#91;196&#93;</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Smallpox\" title=\"Smallpox\">Smallpox</a> infections have been eradicated.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16989262_197-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16989262-197\">&#91;197&#93;</a></sup> Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16364754_198-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16364754-198\">&#91;198&#93;</a></sup> and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17892169_199-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17892169-199\">&#91;199&#93;</a></sup> Vaccines can consist of live-attenuated or killed viruses, viral proteins (<a href=\"/wiki/Antigens\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antigens\">antigens</a>), or <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_vaccine\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"RNA vaccine\">RNA</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16494719_200-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16494719-200\">&#91;200&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid33933145_201-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid33933145-201\">&#91;201&#93;</a></sup> Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as <a href=\"/wiki/Immunocompromised\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Immunocompromised\">immunocompromised</a>), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid1090805_202-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid1090805-202\">&#91;202&#93;</a></sup> Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid3018891_203-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid3018891-203\">&#91;203&#93;</a></sup> Subunit vaccines are safe for <a href=\"/wiki/Immunocompromised\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Immunocompromised\">immunocompromised</a> patients because they cannot cause the disease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16221073_204-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16221073-204\">&#91;204&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine\" title=\"Yellow fever vaccine\">yellow fever virus vaccine</a>, a live-attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18564013_205-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18564013-205\">&#91;205&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Antiviral_drugs\">Antiviral drugs</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26\" title=\"Edit section: Antiviral drugs\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">Antiviral drug</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png/170px-Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"210\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png/255px-Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png/340px-Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"652\" data-file-height=\"807\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Guanosine-acyclovir-comparison.png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>The structure of the DNA base <a href=\"/wiki/Guanosine\" title=\"Guanosine\">guanosine</a> and the antiviral drug <a href=\"/wiki/Acyclovir\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Acyclovir\">acyclovir</a></div></div></div>\n<p>Antiviral drugs are often <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleoside_analogues\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Nucleoside analogues\">nucleoside analogues</a> (fake DNA building-blocks), which viruses mistakenly incorporate into their genomes during replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27281742_206-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27281742-206\">&#91;206&#93;</a></sup> The life-cycle of the virus is then halted because the newly synthesised DNA is inactive. This is because these analogues lack the <a href=\"/wiki/Hydroxyl\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hydroxyl\">hydroxyl</a> groups, which, along with <a href=\"/wiki/Phosphorus\" title=\"Phosphorus\">phosphorus</a> atoms, link together to form the strong \"backbone\" of the DNA molecule. This is called DNA <a href=\"/wiki/Chain_termination\" title=\"Chain termination\">chain termination</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid15592828_207-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid15592828-207\">&#91;207&#93;</a></sup> Examples of nucleoside analogues are <a href=\"/wiki/Aciclovir\" title=\"Aciclovir\">aciclovir</a> for Herpes simplex virus infections and <a href=\"/wiki/Lamivudine\" title=\"Lamivudine\">lamivudine</a> for HIV and hepatitis B virus infections. Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid6355051_208-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid6355051-208\">&#91;208&#93;</a></sup>\nOther antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle. HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the <a href=\"/wiki/HIV-1_protease\" title=\"HIV-1 protease\">HIV-1 protease</a> for it to become fully infectious. There is a large class of drugs called <a href=\"/wiki/Protease_inhibitors\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Protease inhibitors\">protease inhibitors</a> that inactivate this enzyme.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid21430338_209-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid21430338-209\">&#91;209&#93;</a></sup> There are around thirteen classes of antiviral drugs each targeting different viruses or stages of viral replication.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27281742_206-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27281742-206\">&#91;206&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80% of people infected, the disease is chronic, and without treatment, they are <a href=\"/wiki/Infection\" title=\"Infection\">infected</a> for the remainder of their lives. There are effective treatments that use <a href=\"/wiki/Direct-acting_antivirals\" title=\"Direct-acting antivirals\">direct-acting antivirals</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid28319996_210-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid28319996-210\">&#91;210&#93;</a></sup> The treatment of chronic <a href=\"/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier\" title=\"Asymptomatic carrier\">carriers</a> of the hepatitis B virus has also been developed by using similar strategies that include lamivudine and other anti-viral drugs.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid32102898_211-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid32102898-211\">&#91;211&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Infection_in_other_species\">Infection in other species</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27\" title=\"Edit section: Infection in other species\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>Viruses infect all cellular life and, although viruses occur universally, each cellular species has its own specific range that often infects only that species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-212\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-212\">&#91;212&#93;</a></sup> Some viruses, called <a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">satellites</a>, can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18690211-36\">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Animal_viruses\">Animal viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28\" title=\"Edit section: Animal viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Animal_virus\" title=\"Animal virus\">Animal virus</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Veterinary_virology\" title=\"Veterinary virology\">Veterinary virology</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are important pathogens of livestock. Diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease and <a href=\"/wiki/Bluetongue\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bluetongue\">bluetongue</a> are caused by viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18035428_213-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18035428-213\">&#91;213&#93;</a></sup> Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, are susceptible to serious viral infections. <a href=\"/wiki/Canine_parvovirus\" title=\"Canine parvovirus\">Canine parvovirus</a> is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups.<sup id=\"cite_ref-214\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-214\">&#91;214&#93;</a></sup> Like all <a href=\"/wiki/Invertebrates\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Invertebrates\">invertebrates</a>, the honey bee is susceptible to many viral infections.<sup id=\"cite_ref-215\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-215\">&#91;215&#93;</a></sup> Most viruses co-exist harmlessly in their host and cause no signs or symptoms of disease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Dimmock_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dimmock-4\">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Plant_viruses\">Plant viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29\" title=\"Edit section: Plant viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Plant_virus\" title=\"Plant virus\">Plant virus</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png/220px-Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"191\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png/330px-Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png/440px-Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"650\" data-file-height=\"565\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Pepper_mild_mottle_virus.png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div><a href=\"/wiki/Capsicum\" title=\"Capsicum\">Peppers</a> infected by mild mottle virus</div></div></div>\n<p>There are many types of plant viruses, but often they cause only a loss of <a href=\"/wiki/Crop_yield\" title=\"Crop yield\">yield</a>, and it is not economically viable to try to control them. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms, known as <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vector (epidemiology)\">vectors</a>. These are usually insects, but some fungi, <a href=\"/wiki/Nematode\" title=\"Nematode\">nematode worms</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Protozoa\" title=\"Protozoa\">single-celled organisms</a>, and parasitic plants are vectors.<sup id=\"cite_ref-216\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-216\">&#91;216&#93;</a></sup> When control of plant virus infections is considered economical, for perennial fruits, for example, efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds.<sup id=\"cite_ref-217\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-217\">&#91;217&#93;</a></sup> Plant viruses cannot infect humans and other animals because they can reproduce only in living plant cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-218\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-218\">&#91;218&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Originally from Peru, the potato has become a staple crop worldwide.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid24925679_219-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid24925679-219\">&#91;219&#93;</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Potato_virus_Y\" title=\"Potato virus Y\">potato virus Y</a> causes disease in potatoes and related species including tomatoes and peppers. In the 1980s, this virus acquired economical importance when it proved difficult to control in seed potato crops. Transmitted by <a href=\"/wiki/Aphid\" title=\"Aphid\">aphids</a>, this virus can reduce crop yields by up to 80 per cent, causing significant losses to potato yields.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31559020_220-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31559020-220\">&#91;220&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so-called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots. This stops the infection from spreading.<sup id=\"cite_ref-221\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-221\">&#91;221&#93;</a></sup> RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants.<sup id=\"cite_ref-222\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-222\">&#91;222&#93;</a></sup> When they are infected, plants often produce natural disinfectants that kill viruses, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Salicylic_acid\" title=\"Salicylic acid\">salicylic acid</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Nitric_oxide\" title=\"Nitric oxide\">nitric oxide</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species\" title=\"Reactive oxygen species\">reactive oxygen molecules</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-223\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-223\">&#91;223&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have applications in both <a href=\"/wiki/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\">biotechnology</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Nanotechnology\" title=\"Nanotechnology\">nanotechnology</a>. The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems. Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology.<sup id=\"cite_ref-LomonossoffGP_224-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LomonossoffGP-224\">&#91;224&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bacterial_viruses\">Bacterial viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30\" title=\"Edit section: Bacterial viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophage\" title=\"Bacteriophage\">Bacteriophage</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"An electron micrograph showing a portion of a bacterium covered with viruses\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/170px-Phage.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"199\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/255px-Phage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/340px-Phage.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1480\" data-file-height=\"1733\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phage.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Transmission electron micrograph of multiple bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell wall</div></div></div>\n<p>Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments\u2014there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria,<sup id=\"cite_ref-225\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-225\">&#91;225&#93;</a></sup> reaching levels of 250,000,000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater.<sup id=\"cite_ref-226\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-226\">&#91;226&#93;</a></sup> These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to <a href=\"/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)\" title=\"Receptor (biochemistry)\">surface receptor molecules</a> and then entering the cell. Within a short amount of time, in some cases, just minutes, bacterial <a href=\"/wiki/Polymerase\" title=\"Polymerase\">polymerase</a> starts translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell, helper proteins, which help assembly of new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis. Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane, and, in the case of the <a href=\"/wiki/T4_phage\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"T4 phage\">T4 phage</a>, in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages could be released.<sup id=\"cite_ref-227\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-227\">&#91;227&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called <a href=\"/wiki/Restriction_endonucleases\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Restriction endonucleases\">restriction endonucleases</a>, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-228\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-228\">&#91;228&#93;</a></sup> Bacteria also contain a system that uses <a href=\"/wiki/CRISPR\" title=\"CRISPR\">CRISPR</a> sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block the virus's replication through a form of <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_interference\" title=\"RNA interference\">RNA interference</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-229\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-229\">&#91;229&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-230\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-230\">&#91;230&#93;</a></sup> This genetic system provides bacteria with <a href=\"/wiki/Immunity_(medical)\" title=\"Immunity (medical)\">acquired immunity</a> to infection.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27234458_231-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27234458-231\">&#91;231&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Archaeal_viruses\">Archaeal viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31\" title=\"Edit section: Archaeal viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Archaeal_virus\" title=\"Archaeal virus\">Archaeal virus</a></div>\n<p>Some viruses replicate within <a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">archaea</a>: these are DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Lawrence_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lawrence-7\">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Prangishvili_68-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Prangishvili-68\">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup> These viruses have been studied in most detail in the <a href=\"/wiki/Thermophile\" title=\"Thermophile\">thermophilic</a> archaea, particularly the orders <a href=\"/wiki/Sulfolobales\" title=\"Sulfolobales\">Sulfolobales</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Thermoproteales\" title=\"Thermoproteales\">Thermoproteales</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-232\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-232\">&#91;232&#93;</a></sup> Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from <a href=\"/wiki/Repetitive_DNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Repetitive DNA\">repetitive DNA</a> sequences within archaean genomes that are related to the genes of the viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-233\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-233\">&#91;233&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-234\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-234\">&#91;234&#93;</a></sup> Most archaea have CRISPR\u2013Cas systems as an adaptive defence against viruses. These enable archaea to retain sections of viral DNA, which are then used to target and eliminate subsequent infections by the virus using a process similar to RNA interference.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid24909109_235-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid24909109-235\">&#91;235&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_in_aquatic_ecosystems\">Role in aquatic ecosystems</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32\" title=\"Edit section: Role in aquatic ecosystems\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Marine virus\">Marine virus</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16984643-2\">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> There are about ten million of them in a teaspoon of seawater.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid31749771_236-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid31749771-236\">&#91;236&#93;</a></sup> Most of these viruses are <a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophages\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bacteriophages\">bacteriophages</a> infecting heterotrophic bacteria and <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanophages\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cyanophages\">cyanophages</a> infecting cyanobacteria and they are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid30443861_237-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid30443861-237\">&#91;237&#93;</a></sup>\nBacteriophages are harmless to plants and animals, and are essential to the regulation of marine and freshwater ecosystems<sup id=\"cite_ref-238\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-238\">&#91;238&#93;</a></sup>  are important mortality agents of <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>, the base of the <a href=\"/wiki/Foodchain\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Foodchain\">foodchain</a> in aquatic environments.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16163346_239-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16163346-239\">&#91;239&#93;</a></sup> They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are one of the most important mechanisms of <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_cycle\" title=\"Carbon cycle\">recycling carbon</a> and nutrient cycling in marine environments. The organic molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth, in a process known as the <a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shunt\" title=\"Viral shunt\">viral shunt</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-240\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-240\">&#91;240&#93;</a></sup> In particular, lysis of bacteria by viruses has been shown to enhance nitrogen cycling and stimulate phytoplankton growth.<sup id=\"cite_ref-241\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-241\">&#91;241&#93;</a></sup>  Viral activity may also affect the <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_pump\" title=\"Biological pump\">biological pump</a>, the process whereby <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon\" title=\"Carbon\">carbon</a> is <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_sequestration\" title=\"Carbon sequestration\">sequestered</a> in the deep ocean.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Microorganisms constitute more than 90% of the biomass in the sea. It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20% of this biomass each day and that there are 10 to 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid27572161_243-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid27572161-243\">&#91;243&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are also major agents responsible for the destruction of <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a> including <a href=\"/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom\" title=\"Harmful algal bloom\">harmful algal blooms</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-244\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-244\">&#91;244&#93;</a></sup>\nThe number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>In January 2018, scientists reported that 800&#160;million viruses, mainly of marine origin, are deposited daily from the <a href=\"/wiki/Earth\" title=\"Earth\">Earth</a><span class=\"nowrap\" style=\"padding-left:0.1em;\">&#39;s</span> <a href=\"/wiki/Atmosphere\" title=\"Atmosphere\">atmosphere</a> onto every square meter of the planet's surface, as the result of a global atmospheric stream of viruses, circulating above the weather system but below the altitude of usual airline travel, distributing viruses around the planet.<sup id=\"cite_ref-NYT-20180413_245-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NYT-20180413-245\">&#91;245&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-ISME-2018_246-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISME-2018-246\">&#91;246&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Like any organism, <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_mammal\" title=\"Marine mammal\">marine mammals</a> are susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of <a href=\"/wiki/Harbor_seal\" title=\"Harbor seal\">harbour seals</a> were killed in Europe by <a href=\"/wiki/Phocine_distemper_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phocine distemper virus\">phocine distemper virus</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-247\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-247\">&#91;247&#93;</a></sup> Many other viruses, including <a href=\"/wiki/Calicivirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Calicivirus\">caliciviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Herpesvirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Herpesvirus\">herpesviruses</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Adenovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Adenovirus\">adenoviruses</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Parvovirus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parvovirus\">parvoviruses</a>, circulate in marine mammal populations.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>In December 2022, scientists reported the first observation of <a href=\"/wiki/Virovore\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Virovore\">virovory</a> via an experiment on pond water containing <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorovirus\" title=\"Chlorovirus\">chlorovirus</a>, which commonly infects green algae in freshwater environments. When all other microbial food sources were removed from the water, the <a href=\"/wiki/Ciliate\" title=\"Ciliate\">ciliate</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Halteria\" title=\"Halteria\">Halteria</a> was observed to have increased in number due to the active consumption of chlorovirus as a food source instead of its typical <a href=\"/wiki/Bacterivore\" title=\"Bacterivore\">bacterivore</a> diet.<sup id=\"cite_ref-New_Virovore_248-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-New_Virovore-248\">&#91;248&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-First_Virovore_249-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_Virovore-249\">&#91;249&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_in_evolution\">Role in evolution</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33\" title=\"Edit section: Role in evolution\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer\" title=\"Horizontal gene transfer\">Horizontal gene transfer</a></div>\n<p>Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species, which increases <a href=\"/wiki/Genetic_diversity\" title=\"Genetic diversity\">genetic diversity</a> and drives evolution.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Canchaya_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Canchaya-9\">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Broecker2019_250-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Broecker2019-250\">&#91;250&#93;</a></sup> It is thought that viruses played a central role in early evolution, before the diversification of the <a href=\"/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Last universal ancestor\">last universal common ancestor</a> into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid11536914_251-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid11536914-251\">&#91;251&#93;</a></sup> Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid17853907_242-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid17853907-242\">&#91;242&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34\" title=\"Edit section: Applications\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_sciences_and_medicine\">Life sciences and medicine</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35\" title=\"Edit section: Life sciences and medicine\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_research.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/170px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"241\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/255px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/340px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1966\" data-file-height=\"2786\" /></a>  <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_research.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Scientist studying the <a href=\"/wiki/H5N1\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"H5N1\">H5N1</a> influenza virus</div></div></div>\n<p>Viruses are important to the study of <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_biology\" title=\"Molecular biology\">molecular</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_biology\" title=\"Cell biology\">cell biology</a> as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells.<sup id=\"cite_ref-252\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-252\">&#91;252&#93;</a></sup> The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology.<sup id=\"cite_ref-253\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-253\">&#91;253&#93;</a></sup> For example, viruses have been useful in the study of <a href=\"/wiki/Genetics\" title=\"Genetics\">genetics</a> and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_genetics\" title=\"Molecular genetics\">molecular genetics</a>, such as <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_replication\" title=\"DNA replication\">DNA replication</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Transcription (genetics)\">transcription</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/RNA_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"RNA processing\">RNA processing</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Translation_(genetics)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Translation (genetics)\">translation</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Protein\" title=\"Protein\">protein</a> transport, and <a href=\"/wiki/Immunology\" title=\"Immunology\">immunology</a>.\n</p><p>Geneticists often use viruses as <a href=\"/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)\" title=\"Vector (molecular biology)\">vectors</a> to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Similarly, <a href=\"/wiki/Virotherapy\" title=\"Virotherapy\">virotherapy</a> uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in <a href=\"/wiki/Gene_therapy\" title=\"Gene therapy\">gene therapy</a>. Eastern European scientists have used <a href=\"/wiki/Phage_therapy\" title=\"Phage therapy\">phage therapy</a> as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of <a href=\"/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Antibiotic resistance\">antibiotic resistance</a> now found in some pathogenic bacteria.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid16258815_254-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid16258815-254\">&#91;254&#93;</a></sup>\nThe expression of heterologous proteins by viruses is the basis of several manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of various proteins such as vaccine <a href=\"/wiki/Antigen\" title=\"Antigen\">antigens</a> and antibodies. Industrial processes have been recently developed using viral vectors and several pharmaceutical proteins are currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.<sup id=\"cite_ref-GlebaYY_255-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GlebaYY-255\">&#91;255&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Virotherapy\">Virotherapy</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36\" title=\"Edit section: Virotherapy\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Virotherapy\" title=\"Virotherapy\">Virotherapy</a></div>\n<p>Virotherapy involves the use of genetically modified viruses to treat diseases.<sup id=\"cite_ref-256\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-256\">&#91;256&#93;</a></sup> Viruses have been modified by scientists to reproduce in cancer cells and destroy them but not infect healthy cells. <a href=\"/wiki/Talimogene_laherparepvec\" title=\"Talimogene laherparepvec\">Talimogene laherparepvec</a> (T-VEC), for example, is a modified <a href=\"/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus\" title=\"Herpes simplex virus\">herpes simplex virus</a> that has had a gene, which is required for viruses to replicate in healthy cells, deleted and replaced with a human gene (<a href=\"/wiki/GM-CSF\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"GM-CSF\">GM-CSF</a>) that stimulates immunity. When this virus infects cancer cells, it destroys them and in doing so the presence the GM-CSF gene attracts <a href=\"/wiki/Dendritic_cells\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dendritic cells\">dendritic cells</a> from the surrounding tissues of the body. The dendritic cells process the dead cancer cells and present components of them to other cells of the <a href=\"/wiki/Immune_system\" title=\"Immune system\">immune system</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-257\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-257\">&#91;257&#93;</a></sup> Having completed successful <a href=\"/wiki/Clinical_trials\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Clinical trials\">clinical trials</a>, the virus gained approval for the treatment of <a href=\"/wiki/Melanoma\" title=\"Melanoma\">melanoma</a> in late 2015.<sup id=\"cite_ref-258\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-258\">&#91;258&#93;</a></sup> Viruses that have been reprogrammed to kill cancer cells are called <a href=\"/wiki/Oncolytic_virus\" title=\"Oncolytic virus\">oncolytic viruses</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-259\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-259\">&#91;259&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Materials_science_and_nanotechnology\">Materials science and nanotechnology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37\" title=\"Edit section: Materials science and nanotechnology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-260\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-260\">&#91;260&#93;</a></sup> From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles.\nTheir surface carries specific tools that enable them to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface are precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine.<sup id=\"cite_ref-fischlechner_261-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fischlechner-261\">&#91;261&#93;</a></sup>\n</p><p>Because of their size, shape, and well-defined chemical structures, viruses have been used as templates for organising materials on the nanoscale. Recent examples include work at the <a href=\"/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Naval Research Laboratory\">Naval Research Laboratory</a> in Washington, D.C., using <a href=\"/wiki/Cowpea_mosaic_virus\" title=\"Cowpea mosaic virus\">Cowpea mosaic virus</a> (CPMV) particles to amplify signals in <a href=\"/wiki/DNA_microarray\" title=\"DNA microarray\">DNA microarray</a> based sensors. In this application, the virus particles separate the <a href=\"/wiki/Fluorescence\" title=\"Fluorescence\">fluorescent</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Dye\" title=\"Dye\">dyes</a> used for signalling to prevent the formation of non-fluorescent <a href=\"/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)\" title=\"Dimer (chemistry)\">dimers</a> that act as <a href=\"/wiki/Quenching_(fluorescence)\" title=\"Quenching (fluorescence)\">quenchers</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-262\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-262\">&#91;262&#93;</a></sup> Another example is the use of CPMV as a nanoscale breadboard for molecular electronics.<sup id=\"cite_ref-263\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-263\">&#91;263&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Synthetic_viruses\">Synthetic viruses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38\" title=\"Edit section: Synthetic viruses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Many viruses can be synthesised de novo (\"from scratch\").  The first synthetic virus was created in 2002.<sup id=\"cite_ref-264\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-264\">&#91;264&#93;</a></sup> Although somewhat of a misconception, it is not the actual virus that is synthesised, but rather its DNA genome (in case of a DNA virus), or a <a href=\"/wiki/CDNA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"CDNA\">cDNA</a> copy of its genome (in case of RNA viruses). For many virus families the naked synthetic DNA or RNA (once enzymatically converted back from the synthetic cDNA) is infectious when introduced into a cell. That is, they contain all the necessary information to produce new viruses. This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Coleman_265-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Coleman-265\">&#91;265&#93;</a></sup> The ability to synthesise viruses has far-reaching consequences, since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct, as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and <a href=\"/wiki/Permissive\" title=\"Permissive\">permissive</a> cells are available. As of June 2021, the full-length genome sequences of 11,464 different viruses, including smallpox, are publicly available in an online database maintained by the <a href=\"/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health\" title=\"National Institutes of Health\">National Institutes of Health</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-266\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-266\">&#91;266&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Weapons\">Weapons</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39\" title=\"Edit section: Weapons\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_warfare\" title=\"Biological warfare\">Biological warfare</a></div>\n<p>The ability of viruses to cause devastating epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponised for <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_warfare\" title=\"Biological warfare\">biological warfare</a>. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous <a href=\"/wiki/Spanish_flu\" title=\"Spanish flu\">1918 influenza</a> virus in a laboratory.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid30152475_267-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid30152475-267\">&#91;267&#93;</a></sup>\nThe smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. There are only two centres in the world authorised by the WHO to keep stocks of smallpox virus: the <a href=\"/wiki/State_Research_Center_of_Virology_and_Biotechnology_VECTOR\" title=\"State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR\">State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR</a> in Russia and the <a href=\"/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> in the United States.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18844596-268\">&#91;268&#93;</a></sup> It may be used as a weapon,<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18844596-268\">&#91;268&#93;</a></sup> as the vaccine for smallpox sometimes had severe side-effects, it is no longer used routinely in any country. Thus, much of the modern human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox and would be vulnerable to the virus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18844596-268\">&#91;268&#93;</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40\" title=\"Edit section: See also\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n</style><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cross-species_transmission\" title=\"Cross-species transmission\">Cross-species transmission</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glossary_of_virology\" title=\"Glossary of virology\">Glossary of virology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Law_of_declining_virulence\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Law of declining virulence\">Law of declining virulence</a>&#160;\u2013 Disproved hypothesis of epidemiologist Theobald Smith</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-cellular_life\" title=\"Non-cellular life\">Non-cellular life</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrozyme\" title=\"Retrozyme\">Retrozyme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Theory_of_virulence\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Theory of virulence\">Theory of virulence</a>&#160;\u2013 Theory by biologist Paul W. Ewald</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_metagenomics\" title=\"Viral metagenomics\">Viral metagenomics</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viroplasm\" title=\"Viroplasm\">Viroplasm</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Zoonosis\" title=\"Zoonosis\">Zoonosis</a></li></ul>\n</div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41\" title=\"Edit section: References\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42\" title=\"Edit section: Notes\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n</style><div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NG-20200415-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NG-20200415_1-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"></style><cite id=\"CITEREFWu2020\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Wu KJ (15 April 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/factors-allow-viruses-infect-humans-coronavirus/\">\"There are more viruses than stars in the universe. Why do only some infect us? \u2013 More than a quadrillion quadrillion individual viruses exist on Earth, but most are not poised to hop into humans. Can we find the ones that are?\"</a>. <i><a href=\"/wiki/National_Geographic_Society\" title=\"National Geographic Society\">National Geographic Society</a></i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&amp;rft.atitle=There+are+more+viruses+than+stars+in+the+universe.+Why+do+only+some+infect+us%3F+%E2%80%93+More+than+a+quadrillion+quadrillion+individual+viruses+exist+on+Earth%2C+but+most+are+not+poised+to+hop+into+humans.+Can+we+find+the+ones+that+are%3F&amp;rft.date=2020-04-15&amp;rft.aulast=Wu&amp;rft.aufirst=KJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2F2020%2F04%2Ffactors-allow-viruses-infect-humans-coronavirus%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16984643-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16984643_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKooninSenkevichDolja2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Koonin EV, Senkevich TG, Dolja VV (September 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594570\">\"The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells\"</a>. <i>Biology Direct</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 29. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1745-6150-1-29\">10.1186/1745-6150-1-29</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594570\">1594570</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16984643\">16984643</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biology+Direct&amp;rft.atitle=The+ancient+Virus+World+and+evolution+of+cells&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=29&amp;rft.date=2006-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1594570%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16984643&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1745-6150-1-29&amp;rft.aulast=Koonin&amp;rft.aufirst=EV&amp;rft.au=Senkevich%2C+TG&amp;rft.au=Dolja%2C+VV&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1594570&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NYT-20210226-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NYT-20210226_3-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFZimmer2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Carl_Zimmer\" title=\"Carl Zimmer\">Zimmer C</a> (26 February 2021). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/26/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-alive-dead.html\">\"The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it\"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Archived from <span class=\"cs1-lock-limited\" title=\"Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/26/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-alive-dead.html\">the original</a></span> on 28 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=The+Secret+Life+of+a+Coronavirus+-+An+oily%2C+100-nanometer-wide+bubble+of+genes+has+killed+more+than+two+million+people+and+reshaped+the+world.+Scientists+don%27t+quite+know+what+to+make+of+it.&amp;rft.date=2021-02-26&amp;rft.aulast=Zimmer&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F02%2F26%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fcoronavirus-alive-dead.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dimmock-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 4</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ictv2021-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ictv2021_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ictv2021_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ictv2021_5-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ictv.global/taxonomy\">\"Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release\"</a>. <i>talk.ictvonline.org</i>. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=talk.ictvonline.org&amp;rft.atitle=Virus+Taxonomy%3A+2021+Release&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fictv.global%2Ftaxonomy&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278\u201384_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBreitbartRohwer2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Mya_Breitbart\" title=\"Mya Breitbart\">Breitbart M</a>, Rohwer F (June 2005). \"Here a virus, there a virus, everywhere the same virus?\". <i>Trends in Microbiology</i>. <b>13</b> (6): 278\u201384. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2005.04.003\">10.1016/j.tim.2005.04.003</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15936660\">15936660</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Here+a+virus%2C+there+a+virus%2C+everywhere+the+same+virus%3F&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=278-84&amp;rft.date=2005-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tim.2005.04.003&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15936660&amp;rft.aulast=Breitbart&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Rohwer%2C+F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Lawrence-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Lawrence_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Lawrence_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLawrenceMenonEilersBothner2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lawrence CM, Menon S, Eilers BJ, Bothner B, Khayat R, Douglas T, Young MJ (May 2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675988\">\"Structural and functional studies of archaeal viruses\"</a>. <i>The Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. <b>284</b> (19): 12599\u2013603. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.R800078200\">10.1074/jbc.R800078200</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675988\">2675988</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19158076\">19158076</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Biological+Chemistry&amp;rft.atitle=Structural+and+functional+studies+of+archaeal+viruses&amp;rft.volume=284&amp;rft.issue=19&amp;rft.pages=12599-603&amp;rft.date=2009-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2675988%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19158076&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1074%2Fjbc.R800078200&amp;rft.aulast=Lawrence&amp;rft.aufirst=CM&amp;rft.au=Menon%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Eilers%2C+BJ&amp;rft.au=Bothner%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Khayat%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Douglas%2C+T&amp;rft.au=Young%2C+MJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2675988&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFEdwardsRohwer2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Edwards RA, Rohwer F (June 2005). \"Viral metagenomics\". <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>3</b> (6): 504\u201310. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro1163\">10.1038/nrmicro1163</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15886693\">15886693</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8059643\">8059643</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+metagenomics&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=504-10&amp;rft.date=2005-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8059643%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15886693&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro1163&amp;rft.aulast=Edwards&amp;rft.aufirst=RA&amp;rft.au=Rohwer%2C+F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Canchaya-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Canchaya_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Canchaya_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCanchayaFournousChibani-ChennoufiDillmann2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Canchaya C, Fournous G, Chibani-Chennoufi S, Dillmann ML, Br\u00fcssow H (August 2003). \"Phage as agents of lateral gene transfer\". <i>Current Opinion in Microbiology</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 417\u201324. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1369-5274%2803%2900086-9\">10.1016/S1369-5274(03)00086-9</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12941415\">12941415</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Phage+as+agents+of+lateral+gene+transfer&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=417-24&amp;rft.date=2003-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1369-5274%2803%2900086-9&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12941415&amp;rft.aulast=Canchaya&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rft.au=Fournous%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Chibani-Chennoufi%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Dillmann%2C+ML&amp;rft.au=Br%C3%BCssow%2C+H&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReferenceA-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRybicki1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rybicki EP (1990). \"The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics\". <i>South African Journal of Science</i>. <b>86</b>: 182\u201386.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=South+African+Journal+of+Science&amp;rft.atitle=The+classification+of+organisms+at+the+edge+of+life%2C+or+problems+with+virus+systematics&amp;rft.volume=86&amp;rft.pages=182-86&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.aulast=Rybicki&amp;rft.aufirst=EP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid26965225-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid26965225_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid26965225_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKooninStarokadomskyy2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Koonin EV, Starokadomskyy P (October 2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5406846\">\"Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an old but misguided question\"</a>. <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences</i>. <b>59</b>: 125\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2016.02.016\">10.1016/j.shpsc.2016.02.016</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5406846\">5406846</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26965225\">26965225</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Biological+and+Biomedical+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Are+viruses+alive%3F+The+replicator+paradigm+sheds+decisive+light+on+an+old+but+misguided+question&amp;rft.volume=59&amp;rft.pages=125-34&amp;rft.date=2016-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5406846%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26965225&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2016.02.016&amp;rft.aulast=Koonin&amp;rft.aufirst=EV&amp;rft.au=Starokadomskyy%2C+P&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5406846&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-robilotti15-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-robilotti15_12-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRobilottiDeresinskiPinsky2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Robilotti E, Deresinski S, Pinsky BA (January 2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4284304\">\"Norovirus\"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>28</b> (1): 134\u201364. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00075-14\">10.1128/CMR.00075-14</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4284304\">4284304</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25567225\">25567225</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Norovirus&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=134-64&amp;rft.date=2015-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4284304%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25567225&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00075-14&amp;rft.aulast=Robilotti&amp;rft.aufirst=E&amp;rft.au=Deresinski%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Pinsky%2C+BA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4284304&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 123\u2013124</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">\"Virus, n.\". <i>OED Online</i>. Oxford University Press. March 2015.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Virus%2C+n.&amp;rft.btitle=OED+Online&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2015-03&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virus\">\"virus\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=virus&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dvirus&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">\"Virulent, adj.\". <i>OED Online</i>. Oxford University Press. March 2015.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Virulent%2C+adj.&amp;rft.btitle=OED+Online&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2015-03&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virulent\">\"virulent\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=virulent&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dvirulent&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBuschardThon2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Buschard K, Thon R (2003). \"Diabetic Animal Models\".  In Hau J, Van Hoosier Jr GL (eds.). <i>Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science</i>. Animal Models. Vol.&#160;II (Second&#160;ed.). CRC Press. pp.&#160;163, 166.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Diabetic+Animal+Models&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Laboratory+Animal+Science&amp;rft.series=Animal+Models&amp;rft.pages=163%2C+166&amp;rft.edition=Second&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Buschard&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rft.au=Thon%2C+R&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">William T. Stearn: <i>Botanical Latin. History, Grammar, Syntax, Terminology and Vocabulary.</i> David &amp; Charles, third edition, 1983. Quote: \"Virus: virus (s.n. II), <i>gen. sing.</i> viri, <i>nom. pl.</i> vira, <i>gen. pl.</i> v\u012brorum (to be distinguished from <i>virorum</i>, of men).\"</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=viral\">\"viral\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=viral&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dviral&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Etymology_Dictionary2-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Etymology_Dictionary2_21-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHarper2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harper D (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=virion\">\"virion\"</a>. <i>The Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=virion&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Harper&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dvirion&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCasjens2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Casjens S (2010).  Mahy BW, Van Regenmortel MH (eds.). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Boston: Academic Press. p.&#160;167. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pages=167&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rft.aulast=Casjens&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16494962-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16494962_23-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFIyerBalajiKooninAravind2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Iyer LM, Balaji S, Koonin EV, Aravind L (April 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://zenodo.org/record/1259447\">\"Evolutionary genomics of nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses\"</a>. <i>Virus Research</i>. <b>117</b> (1): 156\u201384. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2006.01.009\">10.1016/j.virusres.2006.01.009</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16494962\">16494962</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+genomics+of+nucleo-cytoplasmic+large+DNA+viruses&amp;rft.volume=117&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=156-84&amp;rft.date=2006-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2006.01.009&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16494962&amp;rft.aulast=Iyer&amp;rft.aufirst=LM&amp;rft.au=Balaji%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&amp;rft.au=Aravind%2C+L&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1259447&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid20660197-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20660197_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSanju\u00e1nNebotChiricoMansky2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sanju\u00e1n R, Nebot MR, Chirico N, Mansky LM, Belshaw R (October 2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937809\">\"Viral mutation rates\"</a>. <i>Journal of Virology</i>. <b>84</b> (19): 9733\u201348. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJVI.00694-10\">10.1128/JVI.00694-10</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937809\">2937809</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20660197\">20660197</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+mutation+rates&amp;rft.volume=84&amp;rft.issue=19&amp;rft.pages=9733-48&amp;rft.date=2010-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937809%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20660197&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJVI.00694-10&amp;rft.aulast=Sanju%C3%A1n&amp;rft.aufirst=R&amp;rft.au=Nebot%2C+MR&amp;rft.au=Chirico%2C+N&amp;rft.au=Mansky%2C+LM&amp;rft.au=Belshaw%2C+R&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937809&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid31142823-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid31142823_25-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKrupovicDoljaKoonin2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Krupovic M, Dolja VV, Koonin EV (July 2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02557191/file/Krupovic_NRMICRO-19-022_MS_v3_clean.pdf\">\"Origin of viruses: primordial replicators recruiting capsids from hosts\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>17</b> (7): 449\u2013458. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41579-019-0205-6\">10.1038/s41579-019-0205-6</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31142823\">31142823</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256744818\">256744818</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Origin+of+viruses%3A+primordial+replicators+recruiting+capsids+from+hosts&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=449-458&amp;rft.date=2019-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256744818%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31142823&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41579-019-0205-6&amp;rft.aulast=Krupovic&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Dolja%2C+VV&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fpasteur-02557191%2Ffile%2FKrupovic_NRMICRO-19-022_MS_v3_clean.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dimmock16-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dimmock16_26-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 16</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 11</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mahy_Gen_24-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_24_28-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMahyRegenmortel2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mahy WJ, Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Oxford: Academic Press. p.&#160;24. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 810</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMcClintock1950\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">McClintock B (June 1950). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063197\">\"The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>36</b> (6): 344\u201355. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PNAS...36..344M\">1950PNAS...36..344M</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.36.6.344\">10.1073/pnas.36.6.344</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063197\">1063197</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15430309\">15430309</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=The+origin+and+behavior+of+mutable+loci+in+maize&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=344-55&amp;rft.date=1950-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063197%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15430309&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.36.6.344&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PNAS...36..344M&amp;rft.aulast=McClintock&amp;rft.aufirst=B&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063197&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 11\u201312</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 55</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 791</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18764915-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18764915_34-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFTsagrisMart\u00ednez_de_AlbaGozmanovaKalantidis2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tsagris EM, Mart\u00ednez de Alba AE, Gozmanova M, Kalantidis K (November 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x\">\"Viroids\"</a>. <i>Cellular Microbiology</i>. <b>10</b> (11): 2168\u201379. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x\">10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01231.x</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18764915\">18764915</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221581424\">221581424</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cellular+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Viroids&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=2168-79&amp;rft.date=2008-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221581424%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18764915&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x&amp;rft.aulast=Tsagris&amp;rft.aufirst=EM&amp;rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez+de+Alba%2C+AE&amp;rft.au=Gozmanova%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Kalantidis%2C+K&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1462-5822.2008.01231.x&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 460</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18690211-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18690211_36-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLa_ScolaDesnuesPagnierRobert2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">La Scola B, Desnues C, Pagnier I, Robert C, Barrassi L, Fournous G,  et&#160;al. (September 2008). \"The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>455</b> (7209): 100\u201304. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.455..100L\">2008Natur.455..100L</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07218\">10.1038/nature07218</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18690211\">18690211</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4422249\">4422249</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=The+virophage+as+a+unique+parasite+of+the+giant+mimivirus&amp;rft.volume=455&amp;rft.issue=7209&amp;rft.pages=100-04&amp;rft.date=2008-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07218&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4422249%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18690211&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.455..100L&amp;rft.aulast=La+Scola&amp;rft.aufirst=B&amp;rft.au=Desnues%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Pagnier%2C+I&amp;rft.au=Robert%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Barrassi%2C+L&amp;rft.au=Fournous%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Merchat%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Suzan-Monti%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Forterre%2C+P&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+E&amp;rft.au=Raoult%2C+D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 777</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock pp. 55\u201357</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mahy_Gen_28-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_28_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMahyVan_Regenmortel2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mahy WJ, Van Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Oxford: Academic Press. p.&#160;28. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=28&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mahy_Gen_26-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mahy_Gen_26_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMahyRegenmortel2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mahy WJ, Regenmortel MH, eds. (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Oxford: Academic Press. p.&#160;26. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=26&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock pp. 15\u201316</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid17914905-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17914905_42-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHolmes2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Holmes EC (October 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1994994\">\"Viral evolution in the genomic age\"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>5</b> (10): e278. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0050278\">10.1371/journal.pbio.0050278</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1994994\">1994994</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17914905\">17914905</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+evolution+in+the+genomic+age&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=e278&amp;rft.date=2007-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1994994%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17914905&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0050278&amp;rft.aulast=Holmes&amp;rft.aufirst=EC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1994994&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid20010599-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20010599_43-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWimmerMuellerTumpeyTaubenberger2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wimmer E, Mueller S, Tumpey TM, Taubenberger JK (December 2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819212\">\"Synthetic viruses: a new opportunity to understand and prevent viral disease\"</a>. <i>Nature Biotechnology</i>. <b>27</b> (12): 1163\u201372. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnbt.1593\">10.1038/nbt.1593</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819212\">2819212</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20010599\">20010599</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Biotechnology&amp;rft.atitle=Synthetic+viruses%3A+a+new+opportunity+to+understand+and+prevent+viral+disease&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=1163-72&amp;rft.date=2009-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2819212%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20010599&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnbt.1593&amp;rft.aulast=Wimmer&amp;rft.aufirst=E&amp;rft.au=Mueller%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Tumpey%2C+TM&amp;rft.au=Taubenberger%2C+JK&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2819212&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18473699-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18473699_44-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHorn2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Horn M (2008). \"Chlamydiae as symbionts in eukaryotes\". <i>Annual Review of Microbiology</i>. <b>62</b>: 113\u201331. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.62.081307.162818\">10.1146/annurev.micro.62.081307.162818</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473699\">18473699</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Chlamydiae+as+symbionts+in+eukaryotes&amp;rft.volume=62&amp;rft.pages=113-31&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.62.081307.162818&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18473699&amp;rft.aulast=Horn&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid19016440-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19016440_45-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAmmermanBeier-SextonAzad2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ammerman NC, Beier-Sexton M, Azad AF (November 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2725428\">\"Laboratory maintenance of Rickettsia rickettsii\"</a>. <i>Current Protocols in Microbiology</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 3A.5.1\u20133A.5.21. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780471729259.mc03a05s11\">10.1002/9780471729259.mc03a05s11</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471729259\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0471729259\"><bdi>978-0471729259</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2725428\">2725428</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19016440\">19016440</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Protocols+in+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+maintenance+of+Rickettsia+rickettsii&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=3A.5.1-3A.5.21&amp;rft.date=2008-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2725428%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19016440&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780471729259.mc03a05s11&amp;rft.isbn=978-0471729259&amp;rft.aulast=Ammerman&amp;rft.aufirst=NC&amp;rft.au=Beier-Sexton%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Azad%2C+AF&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2725428&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Krasner p. 98</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Collier3355-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Collier3355_47-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Collier3355_47-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 33\u201355</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 33\u201337</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid1715774-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid1715774_49-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKiselevShermanTsuprun1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kiselev NA, Sherman MB, Tsuprun VL (1990). \"Negative staining of proteins\". <i>Electron Microscopy Reviews</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 43\u201372. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0892-0354%2890%2990013-I\">10.1016/0892-0354(90)90013-I</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1715774\">1715774</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Electron+Microscopy+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Negative+staining+of+proteins&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=43-72&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0892-0354%2890%2990013-I&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1715774&amp;rft.aulast=Kiselev&amp;rft.aufirst=NA&amp;rft.au=Sherman%2C+MB&amp;rft.au=Tsuprun%2C+VL&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 40</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid14019094-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid14019094_51-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCasparKlug1962\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Caspar DL, Klug A (1962). \"Physical principles in the construction of regular viruses\". <i>Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology</i>. <b>27</b>: 1\u201324. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fsqb.1962.027.001.005\">10.1101/sqb.1962.027.001.005</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14019094\">14019094</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Symposia+on+Quantitative+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Physical+principles+in+the+construction+of+regular+viruses&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.pages=1-24&amp;rft.date=1962&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fsqb.1962.027.001.005&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14019094&amp;rft.aulast=Caspar&amp;rft.aufirst=DL&amp;rft.au=Klug%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid13309339-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid13309339_52-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCrickWatson1956\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Crick FH, Watson JD (March 1956). \"Structure of small viruses\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>177</b> (4506): 473\u201375. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1956Natur.177..473C\">1956Natur.177..473C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F177473a0\">10.1038/177473a0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13309339\">13309339</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5740221\">5740221</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Structure+of+small+viruses&amp;rft.volume=177&amp;rft.issue=4506&amp;rft.pages=473-75&amp;rft.date=1956-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F177473a0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5740221%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13309339&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1956Natur.177..473C&amp;rft.aulast=Crick&amp;rft.aufirst=FH&amp;rft.au=Watson%2C+JD&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-virus-AFM-friction-mechanical-properties_53-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFFalvoWashburnSuperfineFinch1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Falvo MR, Washburn S, Superfine R, Finch M, Brooks FP, Chi V, Taylor RM (March 1997). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1184522\">\"Manipulation of individual viruses: friction and mechanical properties\"</a>. <i>Biophysical Journal</i>. <b>72</b> (3): 1396\u2013403. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997BpJ....72.1396F\">1997BpJ....72.1396F</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2897%2978786-1\">10.1016/S0006-3495(97)78786-1</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1184522\">1184522</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9138585\">9138585</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biophysical+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Manipulation+of+individual+viruses%3A+friction+and+mechanical+properties&amp;rft.volume=72&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=1396-403&amp;rft.date=1997-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1184522%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9138585&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2897%2978786-1&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997BpJ....72.1396F&amp;rft.aulast=Falvo&amp;rft.aufirst=MR&amp;rft.au=Washburn%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Superfine%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Finch%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Brooks%2C+FP&amp;rft.au=Chi%2C+V&amp;rft.au=Taylor%2C+RM&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1184522&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-virus-AFM-imaging-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-virus-AFM-imaging_54-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKuznetsovMalkinLucasPlomp2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kuznetsov YG, Malkin AJ, Lucas RW, Plomp M, McPherson A (September 2001). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-82-9-2025\">\"Imaging of viruses by atomic force microscopy\"</a>. <i>The Journal of General Virology</i>. <b>82</b> (Pt 9): 2025\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-82-9-2025\">10.1099/0022-1317-82-9-2025</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11514711\">11514711</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Imaging+of+viruses+by+atomic+force+microscopy&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=Pt+9&amp;rft.pages=2025-34&amp;rft.date=2001-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2F0022-1317-82-9-2025&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11514711&amp;rft.aulast=Kuznetsov&amp;rft.aufirst=YG&amp;rft.au=Malkin%2C+AJ&amp;rft.au=Lucas%2C+RW&amp;rft.au=Plomp%2C+M&amp;rft.au=McPherson%2C+A&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252F0022-1317-82-9-2025&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 37</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFStrausBo2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Straus SK, Bo HE (2018). \"Filamentous Bacteriophage Proteins and Assembly\". <i>Sub-Cellular Biochemistry</i>. <b>88</b>: 261\u2013279. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-10-8456-0_12\">10.1007/978-981-10-8456-0_12</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-8455-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-981-10-8455-3\"><bdi>978-981-10-8455-3</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29900501\">29900501</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sub-Cellular+Biochemistry&amp;rft.atitle=Filamentous+Bacteriophage+Proteins+and+Assembly&amp;rft.volume=88&amp;rft.pages=261-279&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29900501&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-10-8456-0_12&amp;rft.isbn=978-981-10-8455-3&amp;rft.aulast=Straus&amp;rft.aufirst=SK&amp;rft.au=Bo%2C+HE&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 40, 42</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27045511-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27045511_58-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWilson2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wilson DP (2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4821576\">\"Protruding Features of Viral Capsids Are Clustered on Icosahedral Great Circles\"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>11</b> (4): e0152319. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1152319W\">2016PLoSO..1152319W</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0152319\">10.1371/journal.pone.0152319</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4821576\">4821576</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27045511\">27045511</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=Protruding+Features+of+Viral+Capsids+Are+Clustered+on+Icosahedral+Great+Circles&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=e0152319&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4821576%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27045511&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0152319&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PLoSO..1152319W&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson&amp;rft.aufirst=DP&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4821576&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCasens2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Casens S (2009). <i>Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology</i>. Boston: Academic Press. pp.&#160;167\u201374. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-375146-1\"><bdi>978-0-12-375146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Desk+Encyclopedia+of+General+Virology&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.pages=167-74&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-375146-1&amp;rft.aulast=Casens&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid32580969-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid32580969_60-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFDhamaKhanTiwariSircar2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dhama K, Khan S, Tiwari R, Sircar S, Bhat S, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Rodriguez-Morales AJ (September 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7405836\">\"Coronavirus Disease 2019-COVID-19\"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>33</b> (4). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00028-20\">10.1128/CMR.00028-20</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7405836\">7405836</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32580969\">32580969</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Coronavirus+Disease+2019-COVID-19&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.date=2020-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7405836%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32580969&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00028-20&amp;rft.aulast=Dhama&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rft.au=Khan%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Tiwari%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Sircar%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Bhat%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Malik%2C+YS&amp;rft.au=Singh%2C+KP&amp;rft.au=Chaicumpa%2C+W&amp;rft.au=Bonilla-Aldana%2C+DK&amp;rft.au=Rodriguez-Morales%2C+AJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7405836&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 42\u201343</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRossmannMesyanzhinovArisakaLeiman2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rossmann MG, Mesyanzhinov VV, Arisaka F, Leiman PG (April 2004). \"The bacteriophage T4 DNA injection machine\". <i>Current Opinion in Structural Biology</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 171\u201380. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2004.02.001\">10.1016/j.sbi.2004.02.001</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15093831\">15093831</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=The+bacteriophage+T4+DNA+injection+machine&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=171-80&amp;rft.date=2004-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2004.02.001&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15093831&amp;rft.aulast=Rossmann&amp;rft.aufirst=MG&amp;rft.au=Mesyanzhinov%2C+VV&amp;rft.au=Arisaka%2C+F&amp;rft.au=Leiman%2C+PG&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid4322005-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid4322005_63-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLongNobelMurphyHerrmann1970\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Long GW, Nobel J, Murphy FA, Herrmann KL, Lourie B (September 1970). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC376966\">\"Experience with electron microscopy in the differential diagnosis of smallpox\"</a>. <i>Applied Microbiology</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 497\u2013504. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.20.3.497-504.1970\">10.1128/AEM.20.3.497-504.1970</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC376966\">376966</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4322005\">4322005</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Applied+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Experience+with+electron+microscopy+in+the+differential+diagnosis+of+smallpox&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=497-504&amp;rft.date=1970-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC376966%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4322005&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.20.3.497-504.1970&amp;rft.aulast=Long&amp;rft.aufirst=GW&amp;rft.au=Nobel%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+FA&amp;rft.au=Herrmann%2C+KL&amp;rft.au=Lourie%2C+B&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC376966&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Suzan-Monti2006-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Suzan-Monti2006_64-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSuzan-MontiLa_ScolaRaoult2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Suzan-Monti M, La Scola B, Raoult D (April 2006). \"Genomic and evolutionary aspects of Mimivirus\". <i>Virus Research</i>. <b>117</b> (1): 145\u201355. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2005.07.011\">10.1016/j.virusres.2005.07.011</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16181700\">16181700</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Genomic+and+evolutionary+aspects+of+Mimivirus&amp;rft.volume=117&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=145-55&amp;rft.date=2006-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.virusres.2005.07.011&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16181700&amp;rft.aulast=Suzan-Monti&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=La+Scola%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Raoult%2C+D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid21987820-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid21987820_65-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFArslanLegendreSeltzerAbergel2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Arslan D, Legendre M, Seltzer V, Abergel C, Claverie JM (October 2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3198346\">\"Distant Mimivirus relative with a larger genome highlights the fundamental features of Megaviridae\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>108</b> (42): 17486\u201391. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..10817486A\">2011PNAS..10817486A</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1110889108\">10.1073/pnas.1110889108</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3198346\">3198346</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21987820\">21987820</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=Distant+Mimivirus+relative+with+a+larger+genome+highlights+the+fundamental+features+of+Megaviridae&amp;rft.volume=108&amp;rft.issue=42&amp;rft.pages=17486-91&amp;rft.date=2011-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3198346%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21987820&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1110889108&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..10817486A&amp;rft.aulast=Arslan&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft.au=Legendre%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Seltzer%2C+V&amp;rft.au=Abergel%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Claverie%2C+JM&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3198346&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pandoravirus-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pandoravirus_66-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPhilippeLegendreDoutreCout\u00e92013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Philippe N, Legendre M, Doutre G, Cout\u00e9 Y, Poirot O, Lescot M,  et&#160;al. 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+Medical+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Mechanism+and+application+of+genetic+recombination+in+herpesviruses&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=171-82&amp;rft.date=1999-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43110533%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10479778&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-1654%28199907%2F09%299%3A3%3C171%3A%3AAID-RMV243%3E3.0.CO%3B2-A&amp;rft.aulast=Umene&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, Liu W, Bi Y, Gao GF. Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol. 2016 Jun;24(6):490-502. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.03.003. Epub 2016 Mar 21. PMID: 27012512; PMCID: PMC7125511</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-88\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Barr JN, Fearns R. How RNA viruses maintain their genome integrity. J Gen Virol. 2010 Jun;91(Pt 6):1373-87. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.020818-0. Epub 2010 Mar 24. PMID: 20335491</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid26119571-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid26119571_89-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFFreed2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Freed EO (August 2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6936268\">\"HIV-1 assembly, release and maturation\"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>13</b> (8): 484\u201396. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro3490\">10.1038/nrmicro3490</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6936268\">6936268</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26119571\">26119571</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=HIV-1+assembly%2C+release+and+maturation&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=484-96&amp;rft.date=2015-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6936268%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26119571&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro3490&amp;rft.aulast=Freed&amp;rft.aufirst=EO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6936268&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid29592895-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid29592895_90-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFYinRedovich2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yin J, Redovich J (June 2018). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5968458\">\"Kinetic Modeling of Virus Growth in Cells\"</a>. <i>Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews</i>. <b>82</b> (2). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.00066-17\">10.1128/MMBR.00066-17</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5968458\">5968458</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29592895\">29592895</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Kinetic+Modeling+of+Virus+Growth+in+Cells&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2018-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5968458%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29592895&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.00066-17&amp;rft.aulast=Yin&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Redovich%2C+J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5968458&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 75\u201391</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid23737062-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid23737062_92-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFM\u00e1sMelero2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">M\u00e1s V, Melero JA (2013). \"Entry of enveloped viruses into host cells: membrane fusion\". <i>Structure and Physics of Viruses</i>. Subcellular Biochemistry. Vol.&#160;68. pp.&#160;467\u201387. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6552-8_16\">10.1007/978-94-007-6552-8_16</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-6551-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-94-007-6551-1\"><bdi>978-94-007-6551-1</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7121288\">7121288</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23737062\">23737062</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Entry+of+enveloped+viruses+into+host+cells%3A+membrane+fusion&amp;rft.btitle=Structure+and+Physics+of+Viruses&amp;rft.series=Subcellular+Biochemistry&amp;rft.pages=467-87&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7121288%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23737062&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-6552-8_16&amp;rft.isbn=978-94-007-6551-1&amp;rft.aulast=M%C3%A1s&amp;rft.aufirst=V&amp;rft.au=Melero%2C+JA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 70</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBoevinkOparka2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Boevink P, Oparka KJ (August 2005). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183373\">\"Virus-host interactions during movement processes\"</a>. <i>Plant Physiology</i>. <b>138</b> (4): 1815\u201321. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.105.066761\">10.1104/pp.105.066761</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183373\">1183373</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16172094\">16172094</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&amp;rft.atitle=Virus-host+interactions+during+movement+processes&amp;rft.volume=138&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=1815-21&amp;rft.date=2005-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183373%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16172094&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.105.066761&amp;rft.aulast=Boevink&amp;rft.aufirst=P&amp;rft.au=Oparka%2C+KJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1183373&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 71</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27174165-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27174165_96-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBlaas2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Blaas D (May 2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4871925\">\"Viral entry pathways: the example of common cold viruses\"</a>. <i>Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift</i>. <b>166</b> (7\u20138): 211\u201326. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10354-016-0461-2\">10.1007/s10354-016-0461-2</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4871925\">4871925</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27174165\">27174165</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wiener+Medizinische+Wochenschrift&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+entry+pathways%3A+the+example+of+common+cold+viruses&amp;rft.volume=166&amp;rft.issue=7%E2%80%938&amp;rft.pages=211-26&amp;rft.date=2016-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4871925%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27174165&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10354-016-0461-2&amp;rft.aulast=Blaas&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4871925&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid23231449-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid23231449_97-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFIsomuraStinski2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Isomura H, Stinski MF (February 2013). \"Coordination of late gene transcription of human cytomegalovirus with viral DNA synthesis: recombinant viruses as potential therapeutic vaccine candidates\". <i>Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 157\u201366. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1517%2F14728222.2013.740460\">10.1517/14728222.2013.740460</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23231449\">23231449</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11448687\">11448687</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Expert+Opinion+on+Therapeutic+Targets&amp;rft.atitle=Coordination+of+late+gene+transcription+of+human+cytomegalovirus+with+viral+DNA+synthesis%3A+recombinant+viruses+as+potential+therapeutic+vaccine+candidates&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=157-66&amp;rft.date=2013-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11448687%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23231449&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1517%2F14728222.2013.740460&amp;rft.aulast=Isomura&amp;rft.aufirst=H&amp;rft.au=Stinski%2C+MF&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid11451488-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid11451488_98-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBarmanAliHuiAdhikary2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Barman S, Ali A, Hui EK, Adhikary L, Nayak DP (September 2001). \"Transport of viral proteins to the apical membranes and interaction of matrix protein with glycoproteins in the assembly of influenza viruses\". <i>Virus Research</i>. <b>77</b> (1): 61\u201369. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-1702%2801%2900266-0\">10.1016/S0168-1702(01)00266-0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11451488\">11451488</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Transport+of+viral+proteins+to+the+apical+membranes+and+interaction+of+matrix+protein+with+glycoproteins+in+the+assembly+of+influenza+viruses&amp;rft.volume=77&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=61-69&amp;rft.date=2001-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-1702%2801%2900266-0&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11451488&amp;rft.aulast=Barman&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rft.au=Ali%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Hui%2C+EK&amp;rft.au=Adhikary%2C+L&amp;rft.au=Nayak%2C+DP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-99\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 836</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-100\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock, Chapter 15, <i>Mechanisms in virus latency</i>, pp. 243\u201359</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-101\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock 185\u201387</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-102\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 118; Collier p. 78</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-103\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 79</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16949329-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16949329_104-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFStaginnusRichert-P\u00f6ggeler2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Staginnus C, Richert-P\u00f6ggeler KR (October 2006). \"Endogenous pararetroviruses: two-faced travelers in the plant genome\". <i>Trends in Plant Science</i>. <b>11</b> (10): 485\u201391. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2006.08.008\">10.1016/j.tplants.2006.08.008</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16949329\">16949329</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Plant+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Endogenous+pararetroviruses%3A+two-faced+travelers+in+the+plant+genome&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=485-91&amp;rft.date=2006-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2006.08.008&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16949329&amp;rft.aulast=Staginnus&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rft.au=Richert-P%C3%B6ggeler%2C+KR&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-105\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 88\u201389</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier pp. 115\u201346</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-107\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Collier p. 115</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid10547702-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid10547702_108-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRoulstonMarcellusBranton1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Roulston A, Marcellus RC, Branton PE (1999). \"Viruses and apoptosis\". <i>Annual Review of Microbiology</i>. <b>53</b>: 577\u2013628. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.53.1.577\">10.1146/annurev.micro.53.1.577</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10547702\">10547702</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Viruses+and+apoptosis&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.pages=577-628&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.53.1.577&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10547702&amp;rft.aulast=Roulston&amp;rft.aufirst=A&amp;rft.au=Marcellus%2C+RC&amp;rft.au=Branton%2C+PE&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18637511-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18637511_109-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAlwine2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Alwine JC (2008). \"Modulation of host cell stress responses by human cytomegalovirus\". <i>Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology</i>. <b>325</b>: 263\u201379. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-77349-8_15\">10.1007/978-3-540-77349-8_15</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-77348-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-3-540-77348-1\"><bdi>978-3-540-77348-1</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18637511\">18637511</a>.</cite><span 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(December 2007). \"B cells and herpesviruses: a model of lymphoproliferation\". <i>Autoimmunity Reviews</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 132\u201336. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.autrev.2007.02.018\">10.1016/j.autrev.2007.02.018</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18035323\">18035323</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Autoimmunity+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=B+cells+and+herpesviruses%3A+a+model+of+lymphoproliferation&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=132-36&amp;rft.date=2007-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.autrev.2007.02.018&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18035323&amp;rft.aulast=Barozzi&amp;rft.aufirst=P&amp;rft.au=Potenza%2C+L&amp;rft.au=Riva%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Vallerini%2C+D&amp;rft.au=Quadrelli%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Bosco%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Forghieri%2C+F&amp;rft.au=Torelli%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Luppi%2C+M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid19020360-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19020360_111-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSubramanyaGrivas2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Subramanya D, Grivas PD (November 2008). \"HPV and cervical cancer: updates on an established relationship\". <i>Postgraduate Medicine</i>. <b>120</b> (4): 7\u201313. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3810%2Fpgm.2008.11.1928\">10.3810/pgm.2008.11.1928</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19020360\">19020360</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1399003\">1399003</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Postgraduate+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=HPV+and+cervical+cancer%3A+updates+on+an+established+relationship&amp;rft.volume=120&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=7-13&amp;rft.date=2008-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1399003%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19020360&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3810%2Fpgm.2008.11.1928&amp;rft.aulast=Subramanya&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft.au=Grivas%2C+PD&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18164651-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18164651_112-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSinclair2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sinclair J (March 2008). \"Human cytomegalovirus: Latency and reactivation in the myeloid lineage\". <i>Journal of Clinical Virology</i>. <b>41</b> (3): 180\u201385. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcv.2007.11.014\">10.1016/j.jcv.2007.11.014</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18164651\">18164651</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Human+cytomegalovirus%3A+Latency+and+reactivation+in+the+myeloid+lineage&amp;rft.volume=41&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=180-85&amp;rft.date=2008-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jcv.2007.11.014&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18164651&amp;rft.aulast=Sinclair&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid6326635-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid6326635_113-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFJordanJordanStevensMiller1984\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jordan MC, Jordan GW, Stevens JG, Miller G (June 1984). \"Latent herpesviruses of humans\". <i>Annals of Internal Medicine</i>. <b>100</b> (6): 866\u201380. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-100-6-866\">10.7326/0003-4819-100-6-866</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6326635\">6326635</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Latent+herpesviruses+of+humans&amp;rft.volume=100&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=866-80&amp;rft.date=1984-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2F0003-4819-100-6-866&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6326635&amp;rft.aulast=Jordan&amp;rft.aufirst=MC&amp;rft.au=Jordan%2C+GW&amp;rft.au=Stevens%2C+JG&amp;rft.au=Miller%2C+G&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid12076064-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid12076064_114-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSissonsBainWills2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sissons JG, Bain M, Wills MR (February 2002). \"Latency and reactivation of human cytomegalovirus\". <i>The Journal of Infection</i>. <b>44</b> (2): 73\u201377. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1053%2Fjinf.2001.0948\">10.1053/jinf.2001.0948</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12076064\">12076064</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Infection&amp;rft.atitle=Latency+and+reactivation+of+human+cytomegalovirus&amp;rft.volume=44&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=73-77&amp;rft.date=2002-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1053%2Fjinf.2001.0948&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12076064&amp;rft.aulast=Sissons&amp;rft.aufirst=JG&amp;rft.au=Bain%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Wills%2C+MR&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-isbn0-19-957485-5-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-isbn0-19-957485-5_115-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCrawford2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Crawford DH (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/virusesveryshort0000craw/page/16\"><i>Viruses: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press, US. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/virusesveryshort0000craw/page/16\">16</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957485-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957485-8\"><bdi>978-0-19-957485-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Viruses%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&amp;rft.pages=16&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+US&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-957485-8&amp;rft.aulast=Crawford&amp;rft.aufirst=DH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvirusesveryshort0000craw%2Fpage%2F16&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 643</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-117\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 631</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-118\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 272</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid20122382-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid20122382_119-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBaggesenS\u00f8rensenNielsenWegener2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Baggesen DL, S\u00f8rensen G, Nielsen EM, Wegener HC (January 2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=19471\">\"Phage typing of Salmonella Typhimurium \u2013 is it still a useful tool for surveillance and outbreak investigation?\"</a>. <i>Euro Surveillance</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 19471. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20122382\">20122382</a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>367</b> (1604): 2864\u201371. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2011.0354\">10.1098/rstb.2011.0354</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3427559\">3427559</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966141\">22966141</a>.</cite><span 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title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17295196\">17295196</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+Medical+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Viral+metagenomics&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=115-31&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7169062%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17295196&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Frmv.532&amp;rft.aulast=Delwart&amp;rft.aufirst=EL&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7169062&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid4348509-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid4348509_131-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFTeminBaltimore1972\" 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Virus+Research&amp;rft.atitle=RNA-directed+DNA+synthesis+and+RNA+tumor+viruses&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.pages=129-86&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4348509&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0065-3527%2808%2960749-6&amp;rft.isbn=9780120398171&amp;rft.aulast=Temin&amp;rft.aufirst=HM&amp;rft.au=Baltimore%2C+D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid4377923-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid4377923_132-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBaltimore1974\" class=\"citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol\">Baltimore D (1974). \"The strategy of RNA viruses\". <i>Harvey Lectures</i>. 70 Series. 70 Series: 57\u201374. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4377923\">4377923</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvey+Lectures&amp;rft.atitle=The+strategy+of+RNA+viruses&amp;rft.volume=70+Series&amp;rft.pages=57-74&amp;rft.date=1974&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4377923&amp;rft.aulast=Baltimore&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid15078590-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid15078590_133-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFvan_RegenmortelMahy2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">van Regenmortel MH, Mahy BW (January 2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3322749\">\"Emerging issues in virus taxonomy\"</a>. <i>Emerging Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 8\u201313. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid1001.030279\">10.3201/eid1001.030279</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3322749\">3322749</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15078590\">15078590</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&amp;rft.atitle=Emerging+issues+in+virus+taxonomy&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=8-13&amp;rft.date=2004-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3322749%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15078590&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid1001.030279&amp;rft.aulast=van+Regenmortel&amp;rft.aufirst=MH&amp;rft.au=Mahy%2C+BW&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3322749&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid10486120-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid10486120_134-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMayo1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mayo MA (1999). \"Developments in plant virus taxonomy since the publication of the 6th ICTV Report. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses\". <i>Archives of Virology</i>. <b>144</b> (8): 1659\u201366. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs007050050620\">10.1007/s007050050620</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10486120\">10486120</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33422303\">33422303</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Developments+in+plant+virus+taxonomy+since+the+publication+of+the+6th+ICTV+Report.+International+Committee+on+Taxonomy+of+Viruses&amp;rft.volume=144&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1659-66&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33422303%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10486120&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs007050050620&amp;rft.aulast=Mayo&amp;rft.aufirst=MA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid15183049-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid15183049_135-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFde_VilliersFauquetBrokerBernard2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">de Villiers EM, Fauquet C, Broker TR, Bernard HU, zur Hausen H (June 2004). \"Classification of papillomaviruses\". <i>Virology</i>. <b>324</b> (1): 17\u201327. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virol.2004.03.033\">10.1016/j.virol.2004.03.033</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15183049\">15183049</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Classification+of+papillomaviruses&amp;rft.volume=324&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=17-27&amp;rft.date=2004-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.virol.2004.03.033&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15183049&amp;rft.aulast=de+Villiers&amp;rft.aufirst=EM&amp;rft.au=Fauquet%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Broker%2C+TR&amp;rft.au=Bernard%2C+HU&amp;rft.au=zur+Hausen%2C+H&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Microbiology-136\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Microbiology_136-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Mainly Chapter 33 (Disease summaries), pp. 367\u201392 in:<cite id=\"CITEREFFisherHarveyChampe2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Fisher B, Harvey RP, Champe PC (2007). <i>Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology</i>. 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(January 1999). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.mp.4000484\">\"High seroprevalence of Borna virus infection in schizophrenic patients, family members and mental health workers in Taiwan\"</a>. <i>Molecular Psychiatry</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 33\u201338. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.mp.4000484\">10.1038/sj.mp.4000484</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10089006\">10089006</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" 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class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17686862_139-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMargolisElfmanLeibPakpour2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Margolis TP, Elfman FL, Leib D, Pakpour N, Apakupakul K, Imai Y, Voytek C (October 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2045564\">\"Spontaneous reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 1 in latently infected murine sensory ganglia\"</a>. <i>Journal of Virology</i>. <b>81</b> (20): 11069\u201374. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJVI.00243-07\">10.1128/JVI.00243-07</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2045564\">2045564</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17686862\">17686862</a>.</cite><span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Lancet&amp;rft.atitle=Herpes+simplex+virus+infections&amp;rft.volume=357&amp;rft.issue=9267&amp;rft.pages=1513-18&amp;rft.date=2001-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9854903%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11377626&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2800%2904638-9&amp;rft.aulast=Whitley&amp;rft.aufirst=RJ&amp;rft.au=Roizman%2C+B&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-141\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBartonWhiteCathelynBrett-McClellan2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Barton ES, White DW, Cathelyn JS, Brett-McClellan KA, Engle M, Diamond MS,  et&#160;al. 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17931183_142-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBertolettiGehring2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bertoletti A, Gehring A (October 2007). \"Immune response and tolerance during chronic hepatitis B virus infection\". <i>Hepatology Research</i>. <b>37</b> (Suppl 3): S331\u201338. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1872-034X.2007.00221.x\">10.1111/j.1872-034X.2007.00221.x</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17931183\">17931183</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13386004\">13386004</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Hepatology+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Immune+response+and+tolerance+during+chronic+hepatitis+B+virus+infection&amp;rft.volume=37&amp;rft.issue=Suppl+3&amp;rft.pages=S331-38&amp;rft.date=2007-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13386004%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17931183&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1872-034X.2007.00221.x&amp;rft.aulast=Bertoletti&amp;rft.aufirst=A&amp;rft.au=Gehring%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid17664817-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17664817_143-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRodriguesDeshmukhJacobNukala2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rodrigues C, Deshmukh M, Jacob T, Nukala R, Menon S, Mehta A (2001). \"Significance of HBV DNA by PCR over serological markers of HBV in acute and chronic patients\". <i>Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology</i>. <b>19</b> (3): 141\u201344. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17664817\">17664817</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Medical+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Significance+of+HBV+DNA+by+PCR+over+serological+markers+of+HBV+in+acute+and+chronic+patients&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=141-44&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17664817&amp;rft.aulast=Rodrigues&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rft.au=Deshmukh%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Jacob%2C+T&amp;rft.au=Nukala%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Menon%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Mehta%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid17645465-144\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17645465_144-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFNguyenMcLawsDore2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Nguyen VT, McLaws ML, Dore GJ (December 2007). \"Highly endemic hepatitis B infection in rural Vietnam\". <i>Journal of Gastroenterology and 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(December 2000). \"The congenital varicella syndrome\". <i>Journal of Perinatology</i>. <b>20</b> (8 Pt 1): 548\u201354. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.jp.7200457\">10.1038/sj.jp.7200457</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11190597\">11190597</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7973561\">7973561</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Perinatology&amp;rft.atitle=The+congenital+varicella+syndrome&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=8+Pt+1&amp;rft.pages=548-54&amp;rft.date=2000-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7973561%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11190597&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.jp.7200457&amp;rft.aulast=Sauerbrei&amp;rft.aufirst=A&amp;rft.au=Wutzler%2C+P&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid28289251-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid28289251_147-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid28289251_147-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAntonovicsWilsonForbesHauffe2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Antonovics J, Wilson AJ, Forbes MR, Hauffe HC, Kallio ER, 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Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>372</b> (1719). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2016.0083\">10.1098/rstb.2016.0083</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5352810\">5352810</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28289251\">28289251</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+transmission+mode&amp;rft.volume=372&amp;rft.issue=1719&amp;rft.date=2017-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5352810%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28289251&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2016.0083&amp;rft.aulast=Antonovics&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Wilson%2C+AJ&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+MR&amp;rft.au=Hauffe%2C+HC&amp;rft.au=Kallio%2C+ER&amp;rft.au=Leggett%2C+HC&amp;rft.au=Longdon%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Okamura%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Sait%2C+SM&amp;rft.au=Webster%2C+JP&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5352810&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid15627236-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid15627236_148-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFGarnett2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garnett GP (February 2005). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F425271\">\"Role of herd immunity in determining the effect of vaccines against sexually transmitted disease\"</a>. <i>The Journal of Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>191</b> (Suppl 1): S97\u2013106. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F425271\">10.1086/425271</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627236\">15627236</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases&amp;rft.atitle=Role+of+herd+immunity+in+determining+the+effect+of+vaccines+against+sexually+transmitted+disease&amp;rft.volume=191&amp;rft.issue=Suppl+1&amp;rft.pages=S97-106&amp;rft.date=2005-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F425271&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15627236&amp;rft.aulast=Garnett&amp;rft.aufirst=GP&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F425271&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16544901-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16544901_149-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPlatonov2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Platonov AE (2006). \"[The influence of weather conditions on the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases by the example of West Nile fever in Russia]\". <i>Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk</i> (in Russian) (2): 25\u201329. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16544901\">16544901</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Vestnik+Rossiiskoi+Akademii+Meditsinskikh+Nauk&amp;rft.atitle=%5BThe+influence+of+weather+conditions+on+the+epidemiology+of+vector-borne+diseases+by+the+example+of+West+Nile+fever+in+Russia%5D&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=25-29&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16544901&amp;rft.aulast=Platonov&amp;rft.aufirst=AE&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-150\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 264</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 894</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid19091686-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19091686_152-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFJewellKeelingRoberts2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jewell CP, Keeling MJ, Roberts GO (December 2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2817150\">\"Predicting undetected infections during the 2007 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak\"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Society, Interface</i>. <b>6</b> (41): 1145\u201351. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsif.2008.0433\">10.1098/rsif.2008.0433</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2817150\">2817150</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19091686\">19091686</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society%2C+Interface&amp;rft.atitle=Predicting+undetected+infections+during+the+2007+foot-and-mouth+disease+outbreak&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=41&amp;rft.pages=1145-51&amp;rft.date=2009-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2817150%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19091686&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsif.2008.0433&amp;rft.aulast=Jewell&amp;rft.aufirst=CP&amp;rft.au=Keeling%2C+MJ&amp;rft.au=Roberts%2C+GO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2817150&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-153\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 170</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Shorspp-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a 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(July 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1488971\">\"Marburgvirus genomics and association with a large hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Angola\"</a>. <i>Journal of Virology</i>. <b>80</b> (13): 6497\u2013516. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJVI.00069-06\">10.1128/JVI.00069-06</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1488971\">1488971</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16775337\">16775337</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Marburgvirus+genomics+and+association+with+a+large+hemorrhagic+fever+outbreak+in+Angola&amp;rft.volume=80&amp;rft.issue=13&amp;rft.pages=6497-516&amp;rft.date=2006-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1488971%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16775337&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJVI.00069-06&amp;rft.aulast=Towner&amp;rft.aufirst=JS&amp;rft.au=Khristova%2C+ML&amp;rft.au=Sealy%2C+TK&amp;rft.au=Vincent%2C+MJ&amp;rft.au=Erickson%2C+BR&amp;rft.au=Bawiec%2C+DA&amp;rft.au=Hartman%2C+AL&amp;rft.au=Comer%2C+JA&amp;rft.au=Zaki%2C+SR&amp;rft.au=Str%C3%B6her%2C+U&amp;rft.au=Gomes+da+Silva%2C+F&amp;rft.au=del+Castillo%2C+F&amp;rft.au=Rollin%2C+PE&amp;rft.au=Ksiazek%2C+TG&amp;rft.au=Nichol%2C+ST&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1488971&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-168\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-168\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/134771/1/roadmapsitrep_24Sept2014_eng.pdf?ua=1\">\"World Health Organisation report, 24 September 2014\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=World+Health+Organisation+report%2C+24+September+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2F10665%2F134771%2F1%2Froadmapsitrep_24Sept2014_eng.pdf%3Fua%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-169\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-169\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/sections/emerging-viruses\">\"Virology Journal\"</a>. <i>Virology Journal</i>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Virology+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Virology+Journal&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvirologyj.biomedcentral.com%2Farticles%2Fsections%2Femerging-viruses&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid22094080-170\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid22094080_170-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWeissLeibowitz2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Weiss SR, Leibowitz JL (2011). <i>Coronavirus pathogenesis</i>. 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid32109444_173-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHanLinJinYou2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Han Q, Lin Q, Jin S, You L (April 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7102581\">\"Coronavirus 2019-nCoV: A brief perspective from the front line\"</a>. <i>The Journal of Infection</i>. <b>80</b> (4): 373\u201377. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jinf.2020.02.010\">10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.010</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7102581\">7102581</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" 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class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid19395876_178-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPulitzerAminBusam2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Pulitzer MP, Amin BD, Busam KJ (May 2009). \"Merkel cell carcinoma: review\". <i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 135\u201344. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e3181a12f5a\">10.1097/PAP.0b013e3181a12f5a</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19395876\">19395876</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36110778\">36110778</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&amp;rft.atitle=Merkel+cell+carcinoma%3A+review&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=135-44&amp;rft.date=2009-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36110778%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19395876&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e3181a12f5a&amp;rft.aulast=Pulitzer&amp;rft.aufirst=MP&amp;rft.au=Amin%2C+BD&amp;rft.au=Busam%2C+KJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-179\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-179\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKoike2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Koike K (June 2007). \"Hepatitis C virus contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis by modulating metabolic and intracellular signaling pathways\". <i>Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology</i>. <b>22</b> (Suppl 1): S108\u201311. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1440-1746.2006.04669.x\">10.1111/j.1440-1746.2006.04669.x</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17567457\">17567457</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25399220\">25399220</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Gastroenterology+and+Hepatology&amp;rft.atitle=Hepatitis+C+virus+contributes+to+hepatocarcinogenesis+by+modulating+metabolic+and+intracellular+signaling+pathways&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=Suppl+1&amp;rft.pages=S108-11&amp;rft.date=2007-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25399220%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17567457&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1440-1746.2006.04669.x&amp;rft.aulast=Koike&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-180\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-180\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHuLudgate2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hu J, Ludgate L (2007). \"HIV-HBV and HIV-HCV coinfection and liver cancer development\". <i>Cancer Treatment and 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cancer+Treatment+and+Research&amp;rft.atitle=HIV-HBV+and+HIV-HCV+coinfection+and+liver+cancer+development&amp;rft.volume=133&amp;rft.pages=241-52&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17672044&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-46816-7_9&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-387-46804-4&amp;rft.aulast=Hu&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Ludgate%2C+L&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-181\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-181\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBellonNicot2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bellon M, Nicot C (2007). \"Telomerase: a crucial player in HTLV-I-induced human T-cell leukemia\". <i>Cancer Genomics &amp; Proteomics</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 21\u201325. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17726237\">17726237</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cancer+Genomics+%26+Proteomics&amp;rft.atitle=Telomerase%3A+a+crucial+player+in+HTLV-I-induced+human+T-cell+leukemia&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=21-25&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17726237&amp;rft.aulast=Bellon&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Nicot%2C+C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-182\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-182\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSchiffmanCastleJeronimoRodriguez2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Schiffman M, Castle PE, Jeronimo J, Rodriguez AC, Wacholder S (September 2007). \"Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer\". 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Lancet&amp;rft.atitle=Human+papillomavirus+and+cervical+cancer&amp;rft.volume=370&amp;rft.issue=9590&amp;rft.pages=890-907&amp;rft.date=2007-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20196938%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17826171&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2807%2961416-0&amp;rft.aulast=Schiffman&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Castle%2C+PE&amp;rft.au=Jeronimo%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Rodriguez%2C+AC&amp;rft.au=Wacholder%2C+S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-183\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-183\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKleinKisKlein2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Klein E, Kis LL, Klein G (February 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.onc.1210240\">\"Epstein-Barr virus infection in humans: from harmless to life endangering virus-lymphocyte interactions\"</a>. <i>Oncogene</i>. <b>26</b> (9): 1297\u2013305. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.onc.1210240\">10.1038/sj.onc.1210240</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17322915\">17322915</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Oncogene&amp;rft.atitle=Epstein-Barr+virus+infection+in+humans%3A+from+harmless+to+life+endangering+virus-lymphocyte+interactions&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=1297-305&amp;rft.date=2007-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.onc.1210240&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17322915&amp;rft.aulast=Klein&amp;rft.aufirst=E&amp;rft.au=Kis%2C+LL&amp;rft.au=Klein%2C+G&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.onc.1210240&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18449881-184\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18449881_184-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFZur_Hausen2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zur Hausen H (July 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fijc.23620\">\"Novel 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Cancer&amp;rft.atitle=Novel+human+polyomaviruses+%E2%80%93+re-emergence+of+a+well+known+virus+family+as+possible+human+carcinogens&amp;rft.volume=123&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=247-50&amp;rft.date=2008-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9482506%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18449881&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fijc.23620&amp;rft.aulast=Zur+Hausen&amp;rft.aufirst=H&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fijc.23620&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Alberts-185\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Alberts_185-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAlbertaJohnsonLewisRaff2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alberta B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walters P 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17693253_186-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFDingVoinnet2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ding SW, Voinnet O (August 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2703654\">\"Antiviral immunity directed by small RNAs\"</a>. <i>Cell</i>. <b>130</b> (3): 413\u201326. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.07.039\">10.1016/j.cell.2007.07.039</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2703654\">2703654</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a 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id=\"CITEREFPattonVasquez-Del_CarpioSpencer2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Patton JT, Vasquez-Del Carpio R, Spencer E (2004). \"Replication and transcription of the rotavirus genome\". <i>Current Pharmaceutical Design</i>. <b>10</b> (30): 3769\u201377. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1381612043382620\">10.2174/1381612043382620</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15579070\">15579070</a>.</cite><span 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class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17725500_192-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCascalhoPlatt2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cascalho M, Platt JL (2007). \"Novel functions of B cells\". <i>Critical Reviews in Immunology</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 141\u201351. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1615%2Fcritrevimmunol.v27.i2.20\">10.1615/critrevimmunol.v27.i2.20</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17725500\">17725500</a>.</cite><span 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href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC521982\">\"Strategies and mechanisms for host and pathogen survival in acute and persistent viral infections\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>101</b> (Suppl 2): 14560\u201366. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..10114560H\">2004PNAS..10114560H</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0404758101\">10.1073/pnas.0404758101</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=Strategies+and+mechanisms+for+host+and+pathogen+survival+in+acute+and+persistent+viral+infections&amp;rft.volume=101&amp;rft.issue=Suppl+2&amp;rft.pages=14560-66&amp;rft.date=2004-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC521982%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15297608&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0404758101&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PNAS..10114560H&amp;rft.aulast=Hilleman&amp;rft.aufirst=MR&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC521982&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid25015488-195\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid25015488_195-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMJ&amp;rft.atitle=Measles+in+the+United+Kingdom%3A+can+we+eradicate+it+by+2010%3F&amp;rft.volume=333&amp;rft.issue=7574&amp;rft.pages=890-95&amp;rft.date=2006-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1626346%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17068034&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.38989.445845.7C&amp;rft.aulast=Asaria&amp;rft.aufirst=P&amp;rft.au=MacMahon%2C+E&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1626346&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16989262-197\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16989262_197-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLane2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lane JM (2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" 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href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16364754_198-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFArvinGreenberg2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Arvin AM, Greenberg HB (January 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virol.2005.09.057\">\"New viral vaccines\"</a>. <i>Virology</i>. <b>344</b> (1): 240\u201349. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.virol.2005.09.057\">10.1016/j.virol.2005.09.057</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16364754\">16364754</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virology&amp;rft.atitle=New+viral+vaccines&amp;rft.volume=344&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=240-49&amp;rft.date=2006-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.virol.2005.09.057&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16364754&amp;rft.aulast=Arvin&amp;rft.aufirst=AM&amp;rft.au=Greenberg%2C+HB&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.virol.2005.09.057&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid17892169-199\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid17892169_199-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPastoretSchudelLombard2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Pastoret PP, Schudel AA, Lombard M (August 2007). \"Conclusions--future trends in veterinary vaccinology\". <i>Revue Scientifique et Technique</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 489\u201394, 495\u2013501, 503\u201309. <a 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cs1\">Mindel A, Sutherland S (September 1983). \"Genital herpes - the disease and its treatment including intravenous acyclovir\". <i>The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy</i>. <b>12</b> (Suppl B): 51\u201359. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2F12.suppl_b.51\">10.1093/jac/12.suppl_b.51</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6355051\">6355051</a>.</cite><span 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44\u201348. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.4415%2FANN_11_01_10\">10.4415/ANN_11_01_10</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21430338\">21430338</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annali+dell%27Istituto+Superiore+di+Sanit%C3%A0&amp;rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+antiretroviral+therapy+of+HIV+infection%3A+success+and+challenges&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=44-48&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4415%2FANN_11_01_10&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21430338&amp;rft.aulast=Palmisano&amp;rft.aufirst=L&amp;rft.au=Vella%2C+S&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid28319996-210\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid28319996_210-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFFalade-NwuliaSuarez-CuervoNelsonFried2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Falade-Nwulia O, Suarez-Cuervo C, Nelson DR, Fried MW, Segal JB, Sulkowski MS (May 2017). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5486987\">\"Oral Direct-Acting Agent Therapy for Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Systematic Review\"</a>. <i>Annals of Internal Medicine</i>. <b>166</b> (9): 637\u2013648. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.7326%2FM16-2575\">10.7326/M16-2575</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5486987\">5486987</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28319996\">28319996</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Oral+Direct-Acting+Agent+Therapy+for+Hepatitis+C+Virus+Infection%3A+A+Systematic+Review&amp;rft.volume=166&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=637-648&amp;rft.date=2017-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5486987%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28319996&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2FM16-2575&amp;rft.aulast=Falade-Nwulia&amp;rft.aufirst=O&amp;rft.au=Suarez-Cuervo%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Nelson%2C+DR&amp;rft.au=Fried%2C+MW&amp;rft.au=Segal%2C+JB&amp;rft.au=Sulkowski%2C+MS&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5486987&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid32102898-211\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid32102898_211-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFNguyenWongGaneKao2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Nguyen MH, Wong G, Gane E, Kao JH, Dusheiko G (March 2020). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7048015\">\"Hepatitis B Virus: Advances in Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy\"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>33</b> (2). <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00046-19\">10.1128/CMR.00046-19</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7048015\">7048015</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32102898\">32102898</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Hepatitis+B+Virus%3A+Advances+in+Prevention%2C+Diagnosis%2C+and+Therapy&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2020-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7048015%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32102898&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00046-19&amp;rft.aulast=Nguyen&amp;rft.aufirst=MH&amp;rft.au=Wong%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Gane%2C+E&amp;rft.au=Kao%2C+JH&amp;rft.au=Dusheiko%2C+G&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7048015&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-212\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-212\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dimmock p. 3</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18035428-213\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18035428_213-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFGorisVandenbusscheDe_Clercq2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Goris N, Vandenbussche F, De Clercq K (April 2008). \"Potential of antiviral therapy and prophylaxis for controlling RNA viral infections of livestock\". <i>Antiviral Research</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 170\u201378. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.antiviral.2007.10.003\">10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.003</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18035428\">18035428</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Antiviral+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Potential+of+antiviral+therapy+and+prophylaxis+for+controlling+RNA+viral+infections+of+livestock&amp;rft.volume=78&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=170-78&amp;rft.date=2008-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.antiviral.2007.10.003&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18035428&amp;rft.aulast=Goris&amp;rft.aufirst=N&amp;rft.au=Vandenbussche%2C+F&amp;rft.au=De+Clercq%2C+K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-214\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-214\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCarmichael2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Carmichael LE (2005). \"An annotated historical account of canine parvovirus\". <i>Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 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Academic Press. pp.&#160;555\u2013556. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123611604\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780123611604\"><bdi>9780123611604</bdi></a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=12&amp;rft.btitle=Matthews%27+Plant+Virology&amp;rft.pages=555-556&amp;rft.edition=Fourth&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=9780123611604&amp;rft.aulast=Hull&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780123611604500633&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-217\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-217\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors p. 802</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-218\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-218\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 799\u2013807</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid24925679-219\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid24925679_219-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFZaheerAkhtar2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zaheer K, Akhtar MH (2016). \"Potato Production, Usage, and Nutrition \u2013 A Review\". <i>Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition</i>. <b>56</b> (5): 711\u201321. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2012.724479\">10.1080/10408398.2012.724479</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24925679\">24925679</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33074838\">33074838</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Food+Science+and+Nutrition&amp;rft.atitle=Potato+Production%2C+Usage%2C+and+Nutrition+%E2%80%93+A+Review&amp;rft.volume=56&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=711-21&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33074838%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24925679&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408398.2012.724479&amp;rft.aulast=Zaheer&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rft.au=Akhtar%2C+MH&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid31559020-220\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid31559020_220-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFFuentesJonesMatsuokaOhshima2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Fuentes S, Jones RA, Matsuoka H, Ohshima K, Kreuze J, Gibbs AJ (July 2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6755682\">\"Potato virus Y; the Andean connection\"</a>. <i>Virus Evolution</i>. <b>5</b> (2): vez037. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fve%2Fvez037\">10.1093/ve/vez037</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6755682\">6755682</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31559020\">31559020</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Virus+Evolution&amp;rft.atitle=Potato+virus+Y%3B+the+Andean+connection&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=vez037&amp;rft.date=2019-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6755682%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31559020&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fve%2Fvez037&amp;rft.aulast=Fuentes&amp;rft.aufirst=S&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+RA&amp;rft.au=Matsuoka%2C+H&amp;rft.au=Ohshima%2C+K&amp;rft.au=Kreuze%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Gibbs%2C+AJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6755682&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-221\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-221\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFDinesh-KumarThamBaker2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dinesh-Kumar SP, Tham WH, Baker BJ (December 2000). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18997\">\"Structure-function analysis of the tobacco mosaic virus resistance gene N\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>97</b> (26): 14789\u201394. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...9714789D\">2000PNAS...9714789D</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.26.14789\">10.1073/pnas.97.26.14789</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18997\">18997</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11121079\">11121079</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.atitle=Structure-function+analysis+of+the+tobacco+mosaic+virus+resistance+gene+N&amp;rft.volume=97&amp;rft.issue=26&amp;rft.pages=14789-94&amp;rft.date=2000-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18997%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11121079&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.26.14789&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...9714789D&amp;rft.aulast=Dinesh-Kumar&amp;rft.aufirst=SP&amp;rft.au=Tham%2C+WH&amp;rft.au=Baker%2C+BJ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18997&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-222\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-222\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 809</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-223\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-223\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSoosaarBurch-SmithDinesh-Kumar2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Soosaar JL, Burch-Smith TM, Dinesh-Kumar SP (October 2005). \"Mechanisms of plant resistance to viruses\". <i>Nature Reviews. Microbiology</i>. <b>3</b> (10): 789\u201398. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro1239\">10.1038/nrmicro1239</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16132037\">16132037</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27311732\">27311732</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Mechanisms+of+plant+resistance+to+viruses&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=789-98&amp;rft.date=2005-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27311732%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16132037&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro1239&amp;rft.aulast=Soosaar&amp;rft.aufirst=JL&amp;rft.au=Burch-Smith%2C+TM&amp;rft.au=Dinesh-Kumar%2C+SP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LomonossoffGP-224\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LomonossoffGP_224-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLomonossoff2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lomonossoff GP (2011). \"Virus Particles and the Uses of Such Particles in Bio- and Nanotechnology\". <i>Recent Advances in Plant Virology</i>. <a href=\"/wiki/Caister_Academic_Press\" title=\"Caister Academic Press\">Caister Academic Press</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-75-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-75-2\"><bdi>978-1-904455-75-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Virus+Particles+and+the+Uses+of+Such+Particles+in+Bio-+and+Nanotechnology&amp;rft.btitle=Recent+Advances+in+Plant+Virology&amp;rft.pub=Caister+Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-904455-75-2&amp;rft.aulast=Lomonossoff&amp;rft.aufirst=GP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-225\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-225\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWommackColwell2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wommack KE, Colwell RR (March 2000). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC98987\">\"Virioplankton: viruses in aquatic ecosystems\"</a>. <i>Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 69\u2013114. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.64.1.69-114.2000\">10.1128/MMBR.64.1.69-114.2000</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC98987\">98987</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10704475\">10704475</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Virioplankton%3A+viruses+in+aquatic+ecosystems&amp;rft.volume=64&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=69-114&amp;rft.date=2000-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC98987%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10704475&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.64.1.69-114.2000&amp;rft.aulast=Wommack&amp;rft.aufirst=KE&amp;rft.au=Colwell%2C+RR&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC98987&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-226\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-226\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBerghB\u00f8rsheimBratbakHeldal1989\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bergh O, B\u00f8rsheim KY, Bratbak G, Heldal M (August 1989). \"High abundance of viruses found in aquatic environments\". <i>Nature</i>. <b>340</b> (6233): 467\u201368. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.340..467B\">1989Natur.340..467B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F340467a0\">10.1038/340467a0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2755508\">2755508</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4271861\">4271861</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=High+abundance+of+viruses+found+in+aquatic+environments&amp;rft.volume=340&amp;rft.issue=6233&amp;rft.pages=467-68&amp;rft.date=1989-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F340467a0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4271861%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2755508&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.340..467B&amp;rft.aulast=Bergh&amp;rft.aufirst=O&amp;rft.au=B%C3%B8rsheim%2C+KY&amp;rft.au=Bratbak%2C+G&amp;rft.au=Heldal%2C+M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-227\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-227\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shors pp. 834\u201335</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-228\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-228\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBickleKr\u00fcger1993\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bickle TA, Kr\u00fcger DH (June 1993). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC372918\">\"Biology of DNA restriction\"</a>. <i>Microbiological Reviews</i>. <b>57</b> (2): 434\u201350. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.57.2.434-450.1993\">10.1128/MMBR.57.2.434-450.1993</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC372918\">372918</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8336674\">8336674</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Microbiological+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Biology+of+DNA+restriction&amp;rft.volume=57&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=434-50&amp;rft.date=1993-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC372918%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8336674&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.57.2.434-450.1993&amp;rft.aulast=Bickle&amp;rft.aufirst=TA&amp;rft.au=Kr%C3%BCger%2C+DH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC372918&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-229\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-229\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBarrangouFremauxDeveauRichards2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Barrangou R, Fremaux C, Deveau H, Richards M, Boyaval P, Moineau S,  et&#160;al. (March 2007). \"CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes\". <i>Science</i>. <b>315</b> (5819): 1709\u201312. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315.1709B\">2007Sci...315.1709B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1138140\">10.1126/science.1138140</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\">hdl</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11794%2F38902\">20.500.11794/38902</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17379808\">17379808</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3888761\">3888761</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=CRISPR+provides+acquired+resistance+against+viruses+in+prokaryotes&amp;rft.volume=315&amp;rft.issue=5819&amp;rft.pages=1709-12&amp;rft.date=2007-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11794%2F38902&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3888761%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...315.1709B&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17379808&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1138140&amp;rft.aulast=Barrangou&amp;rft.aufirst=R&amp;rft.au=Fremaux%2C+C&amp;rft.au=Deveau%2C+H&amp;rft.au=Richards%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Boyaval%2C+P&amp;rft.au=Moineau%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Romero%2C+DA&amp;rft.au=Horvath%2C+P&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-230\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBrounsJoreLundgrenWestra2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Brouns SJ, Jore MM, Lundgren M, Westra ER, Slijkhuis RJ, Snijders AP,  et&#160;al. (August 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5898235\">\"Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes\"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>321</b> (5891): 960\u201364. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...321..960B\">2008Sci...321..960B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1159689\">10.1126/science.1159689</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5898235\">5898235</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18703739\">18703739</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Small+CRISPR+RNAs+guide+antiviral+defense+in+prokaryotes&amp;rft.volume=321&amp;rft.issue=5891&amp;rft.pages=960-64&amp;rft.date=2008-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5898235%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18703739&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1159689&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...321..960B&amp;rft.aulast=Brouns&amp;rft.aufirst=SJ&amp;rft.au=Jore%2C+MM&amp;rft.au=Lundgren%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Westra%2C+ER&amp;rft.au=Slijkhuis%2C+RJ&amp;rft.au=Snijders%2C+AP&amp;rft.au=Dickman%2C+MJ&amp;rft.au=Makarova%2C+KS&amp;rft.au=Koonin%2C+EV&amp;rft.au=van+der+Oost%2C+J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5898235&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27234458-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27234458_231-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMojicaRodriguez-Valera2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mojica FJ, Rodriguez-Valera F (September 2016). \"The discovery of CRISPR in archaea and bacteria\". <i>The FEBS Journal</i>. <b>283</b> (17): 3162\u201369. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ffebs.13766\">10.1111/febs.13766</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\">hdl</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://hdl.handle.net/10045%2F57676\">10045/57676</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27234458\">27234458</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42827598\">42827598</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+FEBS+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+CRISPR+in+archaea+and+bacteria&amp;rft.volume=283&amp;rft.issue=17&amp;rft.pages=3162-69&amp;rft.date=2016-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10045%2F57676&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42827598%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27234458&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Ffebs.13766&amp;rft.aulast=Mojica&amp;rft.aufirst=FJ&amp;rft.au=Rodriguez-Valera%2C+F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-232\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-232\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPrangishviliGarrett2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Prangishvili D, Garrett RA (April 2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/51497971/0320204.pdf\">\"Exceptionally diverse morphotypes and genomes of crenarchaeal hyperthermophilic viruses\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Biochemical Society Transactions</i>. <b>32</b> (Pt 2): 204\u201308. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1042%2FBST0320204\">10.1042/BST0320204</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15046572\">15046572</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Society+Transactions&amp;rft.atitle=Exceptionally+diverse+morphotypes+and+genomes+of+crenarchaeal+hyperthermophilic+viruses&amp;rft.volume=32&amp;rft.issue=Pt+2&amp;rft.pages=204-08&amp;rft.date=2004-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2FBST0320204&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15046572&amp;rft.aulast=Prangishvili&amp;rft.aufirst=D&amp;rft.au=Garrett%2C+RA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcuris.ku.dk%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F51497971%2F0320204.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-233\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-233\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMojicaD\u00edez-Villase\u00f1orGarc\u00eda-Mart\u00ednezSoria2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mojica FJ, D\u00edez-Villase\u00f1or C, Garc\u00eda-Mart\u00ednez J, Soria E (February 2005). 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class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53564176\">53564176</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+China+Life+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Diversity%2C+evolutionary+contribution+and+ecological+roles+of+aquatic+viruses&amp;rft.volume=61&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=1486-1502&amp;rft.date=2018-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53564176%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30443861&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11427-018-9414-7&amp;rft.aulast=Zhang&amp;rft.aufirst=QY&amp;rft.au=Gui%2C+JF&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-238\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-238\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWeitzWilhelm2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Weitz JS, Wilhelm SW (2013). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/36120/title/An-Ocean-of-Viruses/\">\"An ocean of viruses\"</a>. <i>The Scientist</i>. <b>27</b> (7): 35\u201339.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&amp;rft.atitle=An+ocean+of+viruses&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=35-39&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.aulast=Weitz&amp;rft.aufirst=JS&amp;rft.au=Wilhelm%2C+SW&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2F%3Farticles.view%2FarticleNo%2F36120%2Ftitle%2FAn-Ocean-of-Viruses%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid16163346-239\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid16163346_239-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSuttle2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Suttle CA (September 2005). 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Viruses+in+the+sea&amp;rft.volume=437&amp;rft.issue=7057&amp;rft.pages=356-61&amp;rft.date=2005-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04160&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4370363%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16163346&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.437..356S&amp;rft.aulast=Suttle&amp;rft.aufirst=CA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-240\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-240\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWilhelmSuttle1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wilhelm SW, Suttle CA (1999). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1313569\">\"Viruses and nutrient cycles in the sea: viruses play critical roles in the structure and 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Microbiology</i>. <b>5</b> (10): 801\u201312. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro1750\">10.1038/nrmicro1750</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17853907\">17853907</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4658457\">4658457</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&amp;rft.atitle=Marine+viruses+%E2%80%93+major+players+in+the+global+ecosystem&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=801-12&amp;rft.date=2007-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4658457%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17853907&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro1750&amp;rft.aulast=Suttle&amp;rft.aufirst=CA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid27572161-243\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid27572161_243-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWigingtonSondereggerBrussaardBuchan2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wigington CH, Sonderegger D, Brussaard CP, Buchan A, Finke JF, Fuhrman JA,  et&#160;al. 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Caister Academic Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-75-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-75-2\"><bdi>978-1-904455-75-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Plant+Viral+Vectors+for+Protein+Expression&amp;rft.btitle=Recent+Advances+in+Plant+Virology&amp;rft.pub=Caister+Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-904455-75-2&amp;rft.aulast=Gleba&amp;rft.aufirst=YY&amp;rft.au=Giritch%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-256\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-256\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFJeffersonCadetHielscher2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jefferson A, Cadet VE, Hielscher A (September 2015). \"The mechanisms of genetically modified vaccinia viruses for the treatment of cancer\". <i>Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology</i>. <b>95</b> (3): 407\u201316. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.critrevonc.2015.04.001\">10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.04.001</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25900073\">25900073</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Oncology%2FHematology&amp;rft.atitle=The+mechanisms+of+genetically+modified+vaccinia+viruses+for+the+treatment+of+cancer&amp;rft.volume=95&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=407-16&amp;rft.date=2015-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.critrevonc.2015.04.001&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25900073&amp;rft.aulast=Jefferson&amp;rft.aufirst=A&amp;rft.au=Cadet%2C+VE&amp;rft.au=Hielscher%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-257\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-257\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKarimkhaniGonzalezDellavalle2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Karimkhani C, Gonzalez R, Dellavalle RP (August 2014). \"A review of novel therapies for melanoma\". <i>American Journal of Clinical Dermatology</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 323\u201337. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40257-014-0083-7\">10.1007/s40257-014-0083-7</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24928310\">24928310</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38864550\">38864550</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Clinical+Dermatology&amp;rft.atitle=A+review+of+novel+therapies+for+melanoma&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=323-37&amp;rft.date=2014-08&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38864550%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24928310&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs40257-014-0083-7&amp;rft.aulast=Karimkhani&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Dellavalle%2C+RP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-258\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-258\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-amgen-fda-idUSKCN0SL2YH20151027\">\"FDA approves Amgen's injected immunotherapy for melanoma\"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. 27 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.coviro.2015.03.020\">10.1016/j.coviro.2015.03.020</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25989094\">25989094</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Virology&amp;rft.atitle=Oncolytic+viruses%3A+perspectives+on+clinical+development&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.pages=55-60&amp;rft.date=2015-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.coviro.2015.03.020&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25989094&amp;rft.aulast=Burke&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Nieva%2C+J&amp;rft.au=Borad%2C+MJ&amp;rft.au=Breitbach%2C+CJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-260\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-260\">^</a></b></span> <span 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journal cs1\">Cello J, Paul AV, Wimmer E (August 2002). \"Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template\". <i>Science</i>. <b>297</b> (5583): 1016\u201318. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...297.1016C\">2002Sci...297.1016C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1072266\">10.1126/science.1072266</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12114528\">12114528</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5810309\">5810309</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Chemical+synthesis+of+poliovirus+cDNA%3A+generation+of+infectious+virus+in+the+absence+of+natural+template&amp;rft.volume=297&amp;rft.issue=5583&amp;rft.pages=1016-18&amp;rft.date=2002-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1072266&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5810309%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12114528&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Sci...297.1016C&amp;rft.aulast=Cello&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Paul%2C+AV&amp;rft.au=Wimmer%2C+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Coleman-265\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Coleman_265-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFColemanPapamichailSkienaFutcher2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Coleman JR, Papamichail D, Skiena S, Futcher B, Wimmer E, Mueller S (June 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754401\">\"Virus attenuation by genome-scale changes in codon pair bias\"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>320</b> (5884): 1784\u201387. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...320.1784C\">2008Sci...320.1784C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1155761\">10.1126/science.1155761</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754401\">2754401</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18583614\">18583614</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Virus+attenuation+by+genome-scale+changes+in+codon+pair+bias&amp;rft.volume=320&amp;rft.issue=5884&amp;rft.pages=1784-87&amp;rft.date=2008-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2754401%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18583614&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1155761&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...320.1784C&amp;rft.aulast=Coleman&amp;rft.aufirst=JR&amp;rft.au=Papamichail%2C+D&amp;rft.au=Skiena%2C+S&amp;rft.au=Futcher%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Wimmer%2C+E&amp;rft.au=Mueller%2C+S&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2754401&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-266\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-266\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/GenomesGroup.cgi?taxid=10239\">\"NIH viral genome database\"</a>. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=NIH+viral+genome+database&amp;rft.pub=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgenomes%2FGenomesGroup.cgi%3Ftaxid%3D10239&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid30152475-267\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid30152475_267-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFZilinskas2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zilinskas RA (August 2017). \"A brief history of biological weapons programmes and the use of animal pathogens as biological warfare agents\". <i>Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics)</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 415\u2013422. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.20506%2Frst.36.2.2662\">10.20506/rst.36.2.2662</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30152475\">30152475</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Revue+Scientifique+et+Technique+%28International+Office+of+Epizootics%29&amp;rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+biological+weapons+programmes+and+the+use+of+animal+pathogens+as+biological+warfare+agents&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=415-422&amp;rft.date=2017-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20506%2Frst.36.2.2662&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30152475&amp;rft.aulast=Zilinskas&amp;rft.aufirst=RA&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18844596-268\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18844596_268-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFArtensteinGrabenstein2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Artenstein AW, Grabenstein JD (October 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9709930\">\"Smallpox vaccines for biodefense: need and feasibility\"</a>. <i>Expert Review of Vaccines</i>. <b>7</b> (8): 1225\u201337. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1586%2F14760584.7.8.1225\">10.1586/14760584.7.8.1225</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9709930\">9709930</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18844596\">18844596</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33855724\">33855724</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Expert+Review+of+Vaccines&amp;rft.atitle=Smallpox+vaccines+for+biodefense%3A+need+and+feasibility&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1225-37&amp;rft.date=2008-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9709930%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33855724%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18844596&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1586%2F14760584.7.8.1225&amp;rft.aulast=Artenstein&amp;rft.aufirst=AW&amp;rft.au=Grabenstein%2C+JD&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9709930&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n</ol></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=43\" title=\"Edit section: Bibliography\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n</style><div class=\"refbegin references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFCollierBalowsSussman1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Collier L, Balows A, Sussman M (1998).  Mahy B, Collier LA (eds.). <i>Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections</i>. Virology. Vol.&#160;1 (Ninth&#160;ed.). <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-66316-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/0-340-66316-2\"><bdi>0-340-66316-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Topley+and+Wilson%27s+Microbiology+and+Microbial+Infections&amp;rft.series=Virology&amp;rft.edition=Ninth&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=0-340-66316-2&amp;rft.aulast=Collier&amp;rft.aufirst=L&amp;rft.au=Balows%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Sussman%2C+M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFDimmockEastonLeppard2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ, Leppard K (2007). <i>Introduction to Modern Virology</i> (Sixth&#160;ed.). Blackwell Publishing. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3645-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3645-7\"><bdi>978-1-4051-3645-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Modern+Virology&amp;rft.edition=Sixth&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3645-7&amp;rft.aulast=Dimmock&amp;rft.aufirst=NJ&amp;rft.au=Easton%2C+AJ&amp;rft.au=Leppard%2C+K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFKnipeHowleyGriffinLamb2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Knipe DM, Howley PM, Griffin DE, Lamb RA, Martin MA, Roizman B, Straus SE (2007). <i>Fields Virology</i>. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6060-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6060-7\"><bdi>978-0-7817-6060-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fields+Virology&amp;rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7817-6060-7&amp;rft.aulast=Knipe&amp;rft.aufirst=DM&amp;rft.au=Howley%2C+PM&amp;rft.au=Griffin%2C+DE&amp;rft.au=Lamb%2C+RA&amp;rft.au=Martin%2C+MA&amp;rft.au=Roizman%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Straus%2C+SE&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFKrasner2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Krasner, Robert (2014). <i>The microbial challenge: a public health perspective</i>. Burlington, Mass: Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-7375-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-7375-8\"><bdi>978-1-4496-7375-8</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794228026\">794228026</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+microbial+challenge%3A+a+public+health+perspective&amp;rft.place=Burlington%2C+Mass&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F794228026&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4496-7375-8&amp;rft.aulast=Krasner&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>&lt;/ref&gt;</li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFShors2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shors T (2017). <i>Understanding Viruses</i>. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-284-02592-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-284-02592-7\"><bdi>978-1-284-02592-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Viruses&amp;rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-284-02592-7&amp;rft.aulast=Shors&amp;rft.aufirst=T&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirus\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n</div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Virus&amp;action=edit&amp;section=44\" title=\"Edit section: External links\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n</style><div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"></style>\n<div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"512\" data-file-height=\"512\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\">Look up <i><b><a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/genogroup\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:genogroup\">genogroup</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>\n</div>\n<div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"><div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"512\" data-file-height=\"512\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\">Look up <i><b><a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/virus\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:Special:Search/virus\">virus</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>\n</div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /></a> Media related to <a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Viruses\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Viruses\">Viruses</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Wikispecies-logo.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/14px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"14\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/20px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/27px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"941\" data-file-height=\"1103\" /></a> Data related to <a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Virus\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Special:Search/Virus\">Virus</a> at Wikispecies</li>\n<li><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://viralzone.expasy.org/\">ViralZone</a> A Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics resource for all viral families, providing general molecular and epidemiological information</li></ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></style></style></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Microbiology:_Virus\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"3\"></style><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Virus_topics\" title=\"Template:Virus topics\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Virus_topics\" title=\"Template talk:Virus topics\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Virus_topics&amp;action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Microbiology:_Virus\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\">Microbiology</a>: <a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Virus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"3\"><div id=\"*_History_*_Introduction_*_Social_history_of_viruses_*_Virology\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/History_of_virology\" title=\"History of virology\">History</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Introduction_to_viruses\" title=\"Introduction to viruses\">Introduction</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses\" title=\"Social history of viruses\">Social history of viruses</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virology\" title=\"Virology\">Virology</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Components</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Capsid\" title=\"Capsid\">Capsid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_envelope\" title=\"Viral envelope\">Viral envelope</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_protein\" title=\"Viral protein\">Viral protein</a></li></ul>\n</div></td><td class=\"noviewer navbox-image\" rowspan=\"5\" style=\"width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px\"><div><a href=\"/wiki/File:Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"Rotavirus Reconstruction.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg/100px-Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"88\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg/150px-Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg/200px-Rotavirus_Reconstruction.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1986\" data-file-height=\"1739\" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_life_cycle\" title=\"Viral life cycle\">Viral life cycle</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_entry\" title=\"Viral entry\">Viral entry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_replication\" title=\"Viral replication\">Viral replication</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_shedding\" title=\"Viral shedding\">Viral shedding</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viroplasm\" title=\"Viroplasm\">Viroplasm</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_latency\" title=\"Virus latency\">Virus latency</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Genetics</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_drift\" title=\"Antigenic drift\">Antigenic drift</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Antigenic_shift\" title=\"Antigenic shift\">Antigenic shift</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phenotype_mixing\" title=\"Phenotype mixing\">Phenotype mixing</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Reassortment\" title=\"Reassortment\">Reassortment</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_evolution\" title=\"Viral evolution\">Viral evolution</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">By host</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Animal_virus\" title=\"Animal virus\">Animal virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriophage\" title=\"Bacteriophage\">Bacteriophage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virophage\" title=\"Virophage\">Virophage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Human_virome\" title=\"Human virome\">Human virome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mycovirus\" title=\"Mycovirus\">Mycovirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_virus\" title=\"Plant virus\">Plant virus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Antiviral_drug\" title=\"Antiviral drug\">Antiviral drug</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Giant_virus\" title=\"Giant virus\">Giant virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_virus\" title=\"Helper virus\">Helper virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_vector\" title=\"Viral vector\">Viral vector</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_dependent_virus\" title=\"Helper dependent virus\">Helper dependent virus</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Laboratory_diagnosis_of_viral_infections\" title=\"Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections\">Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Marine_viruses\" title=\"Marine viruses\">Marine viruses</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Neurotropic_virus\" title=\"Neurotropic virus\">Neurotropic virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Oncovirus\" title=\"Oncovirus\">Oncovirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">Satellites</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_disease\" title=\"Viral disease\">Viral disease</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_load\" title=\"Viral load\">Viral load</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus-like_particle\" title=\"Virus-like particle\">Virus-like particle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_classification\" title=\"Virus classification\">Virus classification</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virus_quantification\" title=\"Virus quantification\">Virus quantification</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virome\" title=\"Virome\">Virome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virosphere\" title=\"Virosphere\">Virosphere</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"3\"><div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg\" class=\"image\" title=\"Portal\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"180\" data-file-height=\"185\" /></a> <b><a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Viruses\" title=\"Portal:Viruses\">Portal</a></b></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Category\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"180\" data-file-height=\"185\" /> <b><a href=\"/wiki/Category:Viruses\" title=\"Category:Viruses\">Category</a></b></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Commons page\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /> <b><a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Viruse\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Viruse\">Commons</a></b></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"WikiProject\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"100\" data-file-height=\"100\" /> <b><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Viruses\" title=\"Wikipedia:WikiProject Viruses\">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Self-replicating_organic_structures\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures\" title=\"Template:Self-replicating organic structures\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\"text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Self-replicating_organic_structures\" title=\"Template talk:Self-replicating organic structures\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\"text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures&amp;action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\"text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Self-replicating_organic_structures\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Self-replication\" title=\"Self-replication\">Self-replicating</a> organic structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Life\" title=\"Life\">Cellular life</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\">Bacteria</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryote\" title=\"Eukaryote\">Eukaryota</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Animal\" title=\"Animal\">Animalia</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungus\" title=\"Fungus\">Fungi</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant\" title=\"Plant\">Plantae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">Protista</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Incertae_sedis\" title=\"Incertae sedis\">Incertae sedis</a></i>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Parakaryon_myojinensis\" title=\"Parakaryon myojinensis\">Parakaryon myojinensis</a></i></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Biological_dark_matter\" title=\"Biological dark matter\">Biological dark matter</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Virus</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_I:_dsDNA_viruses\" title=\"DNA virus\">dsDNA virus</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Giant_virus\" title=\"Giant virus\">Giant virus</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_II:_ssDNA_viruses\" title=\"DNA virus\">ssDNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA_viruses\" title=\"Double-stranded RNA viruses\">dsRNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_IV\u2014positive-sense_ssRNA_viruses\" title=\"RNA virus\">(+)ssRNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_V\u2014negative-sense_ssRNA_viruses\" title=\"RNA virus\">(\u2212)ssRNA virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrovirus\" title=\"Retrovirus\">ssRNA-RT virus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"DsDNA-RT virus\">dsDNA-RT virus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Subviral_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Subviral agents\">Subviral<br />agents</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Viroid\" title=\"Viroid\">Viroid</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Pospiviroidae\" title=\"Pospiviroidae\">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Avsunviroidae\" title=\"Avsunviroidae\">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_virus\" title=\"Helper virus\">Helper-virus<br />dependent</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">Satellite</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li>ssRNA satellite virus</li>\n<li>dsDNA satellite virus (<a href=\"/wiki/Virophage\" title=\"Virophage\">Virophage</a>)</li>\n<li>ssDNA satellite virus</li>\n<li>ssDNA satellite</li>\n<li>dsRNA satellite</li>\n<li>ssRNA satellite (<a href=\"/wiki/Virusoid\" title=\"Virusoid\">Virusoid</a>)</li>\n<li>Satellite-like nucleic acids\n<ul><li>RNA</li>\n<li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle\" title=\"Defective interfering particle\">Defective interfering particle</a>\n<ul><li>RNA</li>\n<li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Prion\" title=\"Prion\">Prion</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Prion\" title=\"Prion\">Mammalian prion</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungal_prion\" title=\"Fungal prion\">Fungal prion</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Nucleic_acid\" title=\"Nucleic acid\">Nucleic acid</a><br />self-replication</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements\" title=\"Mobile genetic elements\">Mobile genetic<br />elements</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mobilome\" title=\"Mobilome\">Mobilome</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer\" title=\"Horizontal gene transfer\">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Genomic_island\" title=\"Genomic island\">Genomic island</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transposable_element\" title=\"Transposable element\">Transposable element</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrotransposon\" title=\"Retrotransposon\">Class I or retrotransposon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_transposon\" title=\"DNA transposon\">Class II or DNA transposon</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">Plasmid</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fertility_factor_(bacteria)\" title=\"Fertility factor (bacteria)\">Fertility</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/R-factor\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"R-factor\">Resistance</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Colicin\" title=\"Colicin\">Col</a></li>\n<li>Degradative</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virulence_factor\" title=\"Virulence factor\">Virulence</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Ti_plasmid\" title=\"Ti plasmid\">Ti</a></li>\n<li>Cryptic</li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cosmid\" title=\"Cosmid\">Cosmid</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fosmid\" title=\"Fosmid\">Fosmid</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phagemid\" title=\"Phagemid\">Phagemid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Group_I_catalytic_intron\" title=\"Group I catalytic intron\">Group I intron</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Group_II_intron\" title=\"Group II intron\">Group II intron</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Retrozyme\" title=\"Retrozyme\">Retrozyme</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:7em;text-align: center;\">Other aspects</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/DNA_replication\" title=\"DNA replication\">DNA replication</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase\" title=\"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase\">RNA replication</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chromosome\" title=\"Chromosome\">Chromosome</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Linear_chromosome\" title=\"Linear chromosome\">Linear</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Circular_chromosome\" title=\"Circular chromosome\">Circular</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA\" title=\"Extrachromosomal DNA\">Extrachromosomal DNA</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Secondary_chromosome\" title=\"Secondary chromosome\">Secondary chromosome</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Genome\" title=\"Genome\">Genome</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Gene\" title=\"Gene\">Gene</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gene_duplication\" title=\"Gene duplication\">Gene duplication</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-coding_DNA\" title=\"Non-coding DNA\">Non-coding DNA</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Origin_of_replication\" title=\"Origin of replication\">Origin of replication</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Replicon_(genetics)\" title=\"Replicon (genetics)\">Replicon</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element\" title=\"Endogenous viral element\">Endogenous viral element</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Provirus\" title=\"Provirus\">Provirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Prophage\" title=\"Prophage\">Prophage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endogenous_retrovirus\" title=\"Endogenous retrovirus\">Endogenous retrovirus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transpoviron\" title=\"Transpoviron\">Transpoviron</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Repeated_sequence_(DNA)\" title=\"Repeated sequence (DNA)\">Repeated sequences in DNA</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Tandem_repeat\" title=\"Tandem repeat\">Tandem repeat</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Interspersed_repeat\" title=\"Interspersed repeat\">Interspersed repeat</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">Endosymbiosis</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitochondrion\" title=\"Mitochondrion\">Mitochondrion</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitosome\" title=\"Mitosome\">Mitosome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Hydrogenosome\" title=\"Hydrogenosome\">Hydrogenosome</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">Plastid</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">Chloroplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chromoplast\" title=\"Chromoplast\">Chromoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gerontoplast\" title=\"Gerontoplast\">Gerontoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Leucoplast\" title=\"Leucoplast\">Leucoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apicoplast\" title=\"Apicoplast\">Apicoplast</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Kappa_organism\" title=\"Kappa organism\">Kappa organism</a></li>\n<li>Organs\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteriome\" title=\"Bacteriome\">Bacteriome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Trophosome\" title=\"Trophosome\">Trophosome</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Abiogenesis\" title=\"Abiogenesis\">Abiogenesis</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor\" title=\"Last universal common ancestor\">Last universal common ancestor</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms\" title=\"Earliest known life forms\">Earliest known life forms</a></li>\n<li>?<a href=\"/wiki/RNA_world\" title=\"RNA world\">RNA life</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyme\" title=\"Ribozyme\">Ribozyme</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>\u2020<a href=\"/wiki/Protocell\" title=\"Protocell\">Protocell</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coacervate\" title=\"Coacervate\">Coacervate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Proteinoid\" title=\"Proteinoid\">Proteinoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sulphobes\" title=\"Sulphobes\">Sulphobe</a></li>\n<li>Research\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer\" title=\"Model lipid bilayer\">Model lipid bilayer</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Jeewanu\" title=\"Jeewanu\">Jeewanu</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"text-align: center;;width:1%\">See also</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">Organism</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_(biology)\" title=\"Cell (biology)\">Cell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_division\" title=\"Cell division\">Cell division</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Artificial_cell\" title=\"Artificial cell\">Artificial cell</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-cellular_life\" title=\"Non-cellular life\">Non-cellular life</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Synthetic_virology\" title=\"Synthetic virology\">Synthetic virus</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Viral_vector\" title=\"Viral vector\">Viral vector</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Helper_dependent_virus\" title=\"Helper dependent virus\">Helper dependent virus</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>?<a href=\"/wiki/Nanobacterium\" title=\"Nanobacterium\">Nanobacterium</a></li>\n<li>?<a href=\"/wiki/Nanobe\" title=\"Nanobe\">Nanobe</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cancer_cell\" title=\"Cancer cell\">Cancer cell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/HeLa\" title=\"HeLa\">HeLa</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer\" title=\"Clonally transmissible cancer\">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Virome\" title=\"Virome\">Virome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" title=\"Template:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" title=\"Template talk:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures&amp;action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Life\" title=\"Life\">Life</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Non-cellular_life\" title=\"Non-cellular life\">non-cellular life</a>, and comparable structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Cellular life</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">\"<a href=\"/wiki/Prokaryota\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Prokaryota\">Prokaryota</a>\"</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaea\" title=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\">Bacteria</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitochondrion\" title=\"Mitochondrion\">Mitochondrion</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">Plastid</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryota\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eukaryota\">Eukaryota</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Animalia\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Animalia\">Animalia</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungi\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fungi\">Fungi</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant\" title=\"Plant\">Plantae</a></li>\n<li>'<a href=\"/wiki/Protista\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Protista\">Protista</a>'</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><i><a href=\"/wiki/Incertae_sedis\" title=\"Incertae sedis\">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Parakaryon_myojinensis\" title=\"Parakaryon myojinensis\">Parakaryon</a></i></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nanobacterium\" title=\"Nanobacterium\">Nanobacterium</a> (?)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Non-cellular life</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Virus</a><br /><small>Incl.: <a href=\"/wiki/Viroid\" title=\"Viroid\">viroids</a>,<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Satellite_(biology)\" title=\"Satellite (biology)\">satellites</a>,<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Virophage\" title=\"Virophage\">virophages</a>,<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Virusoid\" title=\"Virusoid\">virusoids</a></small></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Realms</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Adnaviria\" title=\"Adnaviria\">Adnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Duplodnaviria\" title=\"Duplodnaviria\">Duplodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Monodnaviria\" title=\"Monodnaviria\">Monodnaviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Riboviria\" title=\"Riboviria\">Riboviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyviria\" title=\"Ribozyviria\">Ribozyviria</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Varidnaviria\" title=\"Varidnaviria\">Varidnaviria</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Unassigned</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Classes</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"><i><a href=\"/wiki/Naldaviricetes\" title=\"Naldaviricetes\">Naldaviricetes</a></i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Families</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Alphasatellitidae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Alphasatellitidae\">Alphasatellitidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ampullaviridae\" title=\"Ampullaviridae\">Ampullaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Anelloviridae\" title=\"Anelloviridae\">Anelloviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Avsunviroidae\" title=\"Avsunviroidae\">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Bicaudaviridae\" title=\"Bicaudaviridae\">Bicaudaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Clavaviridae\" title=\"Clavaviridae\">Clavaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Finnlakeviridae\" title=\"Finnlakeviridae\">Finnlakeviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Fuselloviridae\" title=\"Fuselloviridae\">Fuselloviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Globuloviridae\" title=\"Globuloviridae\">Globuloviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Guttaviridae\" title=\"Guttaviridae\">Guttaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Halspiviridae\" title=\"Halspiviridae\">Halspiviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Ovaliviridae\" title=\"Ovaliviridae\">Ovaliviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmaviridae\" title=\"Plasmaviridae\">Plasmaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Polydnaviridae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polydnaviridae\">Polydnaviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Portogloboviridae\" title=\"Portogloboviridae\">Portogloboviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Pospiviroidae\" title=\"Pospiviroidae\">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Spiraviridae\" title=\"Spiraviridae\">Spiraviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Thaspiviridae\" title=\"Thaspiviridae\">Thaspiviridae</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Tolecusatellitidae\" title=\"Tolecusatellitidae\">Tolecusatellitidae</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Genera</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Dinodnavirus\" title=\"Dinodnavirus\">Dinodnavirus</a></i></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizidiovirus\" title=\"Rhizidiovirus\">Rhizidiovirus</a></i></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Nanobe\" title=\"Nanobe\">Nanobe</a> (?)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Comparable<br />structures</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Biological_dark_matter\" title=\"Biological dark matter\">Biological dark matter</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bio-like_structure\" title=\"Bio-like structure\">Bio-like structure</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cancer_cell\" title=\"Cancer cell\">Cancer cell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/HeLa\" title=\"HeLa\">HeLa</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer\" title=\"Clonally transmissible cancer\">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cosmid\" title=\"Cosmid\">Cosmid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle\" title=\"Defective interfering particle\">Defective interfering particle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms\" title=\"Earliest known life forms\">Earliest known life forms</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/LUCA\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"LUCA\">LUCA</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element\" title=\"Endogenous viral element\">Endogenous viral element</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fosmid\" title=\"Fosmid\">Fosmid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Integrative_and_conjugative_element\" title=\"Integrative and conjugative element\">Integrative and conjugative element</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phagemid\" title=\"Phagemid\">Phagemid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmid\" title=\"Plasmid\">Plasmid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Prion\" title=\"Prion\">Prion</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungal_prion\" title=\"Fungal prion\">Fungal prion</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Protocell\" title=\"Protocell\">Protocell</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Coacervate\" title=\"Coacervate\">Coacervate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Proteinoid\" title=\"Proteinoid\">Proteinoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer\" title=\"Model lipid bilayer\">Model lipid bilayer</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Jeewanu\" title=\"Jeewanu\">Jeewanu</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sulphobes\" title=\"Sulphobes\">Sulphobe</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>Retroelements not elsewhere classified\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Retron\" title=\"Retron\">Retron</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Diversity-generating_retroelement\" title=\"Diversity-generating retroelement\">Diversity-generating retroelement</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Telomerase_reverse_transcriptase\" title=\"Telomerase reverse transcriptase\">Telomerase reverse transcriptase</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase-related_cellular_gene\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene\">Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ribozyme\" title=\"Ribozyme\">Ribozyme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Spiegelman%27s_Monster\" title=\"Spiegelman&#39;s Monster\">Spiegelman's Monster</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Tandem_repeat\" title=\"Tandem repeat\">Tandem repeat</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transposable_element\" title=\"Transposable element\">Transposable element</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Retroposon\" title=\"Retroposon\">Retroposon</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transpoviron\" title=\"Transpoviron\">Transpoviron</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></style></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox authority-control\" aria-labelledby=\"Authority_control_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><div id=\"Authority_control_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:Authority_control\" title=\"Help:Authority control\">Authority control</a> <a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808#identifiers\" title=\"Edit this at Wikidata\"><img alt=\"Edit this at Wikidata\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"10\" height=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: text-top\" class=\"noprint\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"20\" data-file-height=\"20\" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">International</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1167771/\">FAST</a></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">National</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Virus\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&amp;authority_id=XX527219\">Spain</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Virus\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11938341t\">France</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Virus\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11938341t\">BnF data</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Viren\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4063589-2\">Germany</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&amp;local_base=NLX10&amp;find_code=UID&amp;request=987007541431905171\">Israel</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85143833\">United States</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"V\u012brusi\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&amp;local_base=lnc10&amp;doc_number=000094794&amp;P_CON_LNG=ENG\">Latvia</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560678\">Japan</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"viry\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=ph116578&amp;CON_LNG=ENG\">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n</p>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Taxon_identifiers\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Taxon_identifiers\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;text-align: left;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers\" title=\"Help:Taxon identifiers\">Taxon identifiers</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikidata\" title=\"Wikidata\">Wikidata</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"external\"><a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q808\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikidata:Q808\">Q808</a></span></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikispecies\" title=\"Wikispecies\">Wikispecies</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"external\"><a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Virus\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Virus\">Virus</a></span></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System\" title=\"Barcode of Life Data System\">BOLD</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=782766\">782766</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life\" title=\"Encyclopedia of Life\">EoL</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://eol.org/pages/5006\">5006</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility\" title=\"Global Biodiversity Information Facility\">GBIF</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.gbif.org/species/8\">8</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/INaturalist\" title=\"INaturalist\">iNaturalist</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/131236\">131236</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information\" title=\"National Center for Biotechnology Information\">NCBI</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&amp;id=10239\">10239</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span style=\"white-space:nowrap;\"><a href=\"/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species\" title=\"World Register of Marine Species\">WoRMS</a>: <span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&amp;id=10\">10</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n</style><div class=\"portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered\" role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\"><span class=\"portal-bar-header\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals\" title=\"Wikipedia:Contents/Portals\">Portals</a>:</span><ul class=\"portal-bar-content\"><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"21\" height=\"15\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"629\" data-file-height=\"445\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Biology\" title=\"Portal:Biology\">Biology</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/21px-Tree_of_life.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"21\" height=\"17\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/42px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"915\" data-file-height=\"760\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology\" title=\"Portal:Evolutionary biology\">Evolutionary biology</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"8\" height=\"19\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"107\" data-file-height=\"250\" />&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Medicine\" title=\"Portal:Medicine\">Medicine</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"128\" data-file-height=\"128\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Science\" title=\"Portal:Science\">Science</a></li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/19px-Sida-aids.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/29px-Sida-aids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/38px-Sida-aids.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"290\" data-file-height=\"290\" /></a>&#160;<a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Viruses\" title=\"Portal:Viruses\">Viruses</a></li></ul></div></div>"
}