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{
"title": "Algae",
"original_title": "Algae",
"pageid": "633",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae",
"_content": "Algae (UK: , US: ; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown algae which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic (they generate food internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts.\nNo definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae \"have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells\". Likewise, the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as \"blue-green algae\", most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae.Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids of non-vascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution control, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in order to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.\n\n\n== Etymology and study ==\nThe singular alga is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English. The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin alg\u0113re, 'be cold', no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is alliga, 'binding, entwining'.The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was \u03c6\u1fe6\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 (ph\u0177kos), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, f\u016bcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical \u05e4\u05d5\u05da (p\u016bk), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name f\u016bcus appears in a number of taxa.\n\n\n== Classifications ==\nThe committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are -phyta for division, -phyceae for class, -phycideae for subclass, -ales for order, -inales for suborder, -aceae for family, -oidease for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species.\n\n\n=== Algal characteristics basic to primary classification ===\nThe primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure.\n\n\n=== History of classification of algae ===\nAlthough Carolus Linnaeus (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia, he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae.\nJean Pierre \u00c9tienne Vaucher (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, William Henry Harvey (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. J. G. Agardh (1849\u20131898) divided algae into six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a division created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, Adolf Engler and Karl A. E. Prantl (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows:\nSchizophyta\nPhytosarcodina\nFlagellata\nDinoflagellata\nBacillariophyta\nConjugatae\nChlorophyceae\nCharophyta\nPhaeophyceae\nRhodophyceae\nEumycetes (Fungi)\nThe algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.\nPhylogeny based on plastid not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:\n\nLinnaeus, in Species Plantarum (1753), the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae. In Systema Naturae, Linnaeus described the genera Volvox and Corallina, and a species of Acetabularia (as Madrepora), among the animals.\nIn 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744\u20131774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.W. H. Harvey (1811\u20131866) and Lamouroux (1813) were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., O. F. M\u00fcller and Ehrenberg) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms). Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed as plants, microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile. Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the \"algae\" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.\nThroughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes).\nWith the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists).\nSome parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium, parasites of metazoans, or Cephaleuros, parasites of plants) were originally classified as fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of incertae sedis, while others (e.g., the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium, parasites of plants, or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates Oodinium, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., Chlorochytrium), but later were seen as endophytic algae. Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.\n\n\n== Relationship to land plants ==\nThe first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.\n\n\n== Morphology ==\n\nA range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes. The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes. Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns.Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, are\n\nColonial: small, regular groups of motile cells\nCapsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage\nCoccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls\nPalmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage\nFilamentous: a string of connected nonmotile cells, sometimes branching\nParenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissuesIn three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,\u2014some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)\u2014the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes.\n\n\n=== Turfs ===\nThe term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed:\nAlgae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported.\nTurfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species.\nTurfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm).\n\n\n== Physiology ==\nMany algae, particularly members of the Characeae species, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.\nPhytohormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.\n\n\n== Symbiotic algae ==\nSome species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:\n\n\n=== Lichens ===\n\nLichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be \"an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure\". The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. In nature, they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate. One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence \"photobiont\" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species. The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (aerophytes) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them.\n\n\n=== Coral reefs ===\n\n Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition. The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.\n\n\n=== Sea sponges ===\n\nEndosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.\n\n\n== Life cycle ==\n\nRhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal divisions, have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes. Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle. However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction. Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.\n\n\n== Numbers ==\n\nThe Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown). Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: \"It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...\"\nRegional and group estimates have been made, as well:\n\n5,000\u20135,500 species of red algae worldwide\n\"some 1,300 in Australian Seas\"\n400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines.\n669 marine species from California (US)\n642 in the check-list of Britain and Irelandand so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.\nThe most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.\n\n\n== Distribution ==\nThe distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands.\nThe spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers. However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them. Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as \"Pacific algae\" or \"North Sea algae\". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and U. fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner.\nMapping is possible for select species only: \"there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns.\" For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the \"difficulties of undertaking such studies.\"\n\n\n== Ecology ==\n\nAlgae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under 100 m (330 ft) deep; however, some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of 360 m (1,180 ft). A type of algae, Ancylonema nordenskioeldii, was found in Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet. Same algae was found in the Italian Alps, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms.\nAlgae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems. In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants. To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: aquatic (planktonic, benthic, marine, freshwater, lentic, lotic), terrestrial, aerial (subaerial), lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic), parasitic, calcifilic or lichenic (phycobiont).\n\n\n== Cultural associations ==\nIn classical Chinese, the word \u85fb is used both for \"algae\" and (in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars) for \"literary talent\". The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao (\u85fb\u9452\u5802\u5cf6), which thus simultaneously means \"Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall\" and \"Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent\".\n\n\n== Cultivation ==\n\n\n=== Seaweed farming ===\n\n\n=== Bioreactors ===\n\n\n== Uses ==\n\n\n=== Agar ===\nAgar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses. It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.\n\n\n=== Alginates ===\nAlginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours.\nBetween 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed.\n\n\n=== Energy source ===\n\nTo be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.\n\n\n=== Fertilizer ===\n\nFor centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales:\nThis kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.\nToday, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.\n\n\n=== Nutrition ===\n\nNaturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as superfoods. They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium. In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as spirulina, Chlorella and the vitamin-C supplement from Dunaliella, high in beta-carotene.\nAlgae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as nori and aonori; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales, where it is known as bara lawr; in Korea, gim. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the M\u0101ori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland, and Iceland. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine:\n\nChlorella: This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains photosynthetic pigments in its chloroplast. It is high in iron, zinc, magnesium, vitamin B2 and Omega-3 fatty acids.Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential amino acids the body does not produce on its own\nSpirulina: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a prokaryote, incorrectly referred to as a \"blue-green alga\"), contains 10% more protein than Chlorella as well as more thiamine and copper.The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, Parietochloris incisa is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).\n\n\n=== Pollution control ===\nSewage can be treated with algae, reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed.\nAlgae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer.\nAquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber, also known as an algae turf scrubber.Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60\u201390% of nitrogen runoff and 70\u2013100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.\n\n\n=== Polymers ===\nVarious polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene. Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops and in surf boards.\n\n\n=== Bioremediation ===\nThe alga Stichococcus bacillaris has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; biodegrading the synthetic substance.\n\n\n=== Pigments ===\nThe natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents.\nThe presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly high-performance liquid chromatography, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.\n\n\n=== Stabilizing substances ===\n\nCarrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabilizer in milk products.\n\n\n== Additional images ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nAlgaeBase\nAlgaePARC\nEutrophication\nIron fertilization\nMarimo algae\nMicrobiofuels\nMicrophyte\nPhotobioreactor\nPhycotechnology\nPlant\nToxoid \u2013 anatoxin\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nGuiry, Michael; Guiry, Wendy. \"AlgaeBase\". \u2013 a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts\n\"Algae \u2013 Cell Centered Database\". CCDb.UCSD.edu. San Diego: University of California.\n\"Algae Research\". National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\nAnderson, Don; Keafer, Bruce; Kleindinst, Judy; Shaughnessy, Katie; Joyce, Katherine; Fino, Danielle; Shepherd, Adam (2007). \"Harmful Algae\". US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\n\"Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)\". Department of Environment / Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust. Archived from the original on 30 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\n\"Freshwater Algae Research\". Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research. 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011.\n\"Monterey Bay Flora\". Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). 1996\u20132008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2008.\nSilva, Paul (1997\u20132004). \"Index Nominum Algarum (INA)\". Berkeley: University Herbarium, University of California. Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\n\"Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts\". TolWeb.org.\n\"Research on microalgae\". Algae.WUR.nl. Wageningen UR. 2009. Archived from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2009.\n\"Algae glossary\". Australian Biological Resources Study. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012 \u2013 via Environment.gov.au.\n\"About Algae\". NMH.ac.uk. Natural History Museum, United Kingdom.\nEnAlgae Archived 4 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine",
"_revision_id": 1147616324,
"_parent_id": 1147472067,
"_summary": "Algae (UK: , US: ; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown algae which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic (they generate food internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts.\nNo definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae \"have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells\". Likewise, the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as \"blue-green algae\", most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae.Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids of non-vascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution control, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in order to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.",
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"Chondrus crispus",
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"Convergent evolution",
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"Copper",
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"Coral bleaching",
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"Coralline algae",
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"Cyanobacteria",
"Cyanophyte",
"Cytoplasmic streaming",
"Cytostome",
"DNA",
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"Developmental biology",
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"Dictyostelid",
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"Dinocyst",
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"Dinoflagellate",
"Dinokaryon",
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"Docosahexaenoic acid",
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"Double fertilization",
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"Dunaliella",
"Dye",
"Dyes",
"East Asia",
"Edible seaweed",
"Eicosapentaenoic acid",
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"Embryophyte",
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"Endosperm",
"Endosymbiont",
"Endosymbiotic theory",
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"Epicuticular wax",
"Epidermis (botany)",
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"Ethanol fuel",
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"Euglenid",
"Euglenophyte",
"Euglenozoa",
"Eukaryota",
"Eukaryotic",
"Euryhaline",
"Eustigmatophyceae",
"Eustigmatophyte",
"Eutrophication",
"Evolutionary history of plants",
"Excavata",
"Exoskeleton",
"Extrusome",
"Eyespot apparatus",
"Fat choy (vegetable)",
"Fertilization",
"Fertilizer",
"Fimbria (bacteriology)",
"Flagellate",
"Flagellum",
"Flaxseed oil",
"Flora",
"Floral diagram",
"Floral formula",
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"Florideophyceae",
"Flower",
"Flowering plant",
"Food",
"Food and Agriculture Organization",
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"Freshwater ecosystem",
"Frontiers in Marine Science",
"Fruit",
"Fruit anatomy",
"Frustule",
"Fungi",
"Fungus",
"Gamete",
"Gametophyte",
"Gas exchange",
"Gelatin",
"Gelidiocolax mammillatus",
"Gelling agent",
"Geobotanical prospecting",
"Geology (journal)",
"George Owen of Henllys",
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"Germination",
"Gim (Korean food)",
"Glaucophyta",
"Glaucophyte",
"Gliding motility",
"Glossary of botanical terms",
"Glossary of plant morphology",
"Glycosome",
"Golden algae",
"Gracilaria",
"Green algae",
"Green sulfur bacteria",
"Greenland",
"Grex (horticulture)",
"Ground tissue",
"Gymnosperm",
"Gynoecium",
"Habit (biology)",
"Hacrobia",
"Hadean",
"Halichondria panicea",
"Halophyte",
"Halvaria",
"Haploid",
"Haptophyta",
"Haptophyte",
"Haptophytes",
"Harvest",
"Hawaii",
"Healthy diet",
"Helicosporidium",
"Heliozoa",
"Herbaceous plant",
"Herbarium",
"Hermatypic coral",
"Heterokaryon",
"Heterokont",
"Heterokontophyte",
"Heterotroph",
"Heterotrophy",
"High-performance liquid chromatography",
"Hildenbrandiales",
"History of botany",
"History of plant systematics",
"Horsetail",
"Horticulture",
"Hydrogenosome",
"Hydrothermal Liquefaction",
"Hypanthium",
"Hyphal",
"ISBN (identifier)",
"ISSN (identifier)",
"Ice algae",
"Iceland",
"Incertae sedis",
"Indicator organism",
"Inflorescence",
"Infusoria",
"Inisheer",
"International Association for Lichenology",
"International Association for Plant Taxonomy",
"International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants",
"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants",
"Iodine",
"Iron",
"Iron fertilization",
"Italian Alps",
"J. G. Agardh",
"Jean Pierre \u00c9tienne Vaucher",
"Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link",
"Kappaphycus alvarezii",
"Karl Anton Eugen Prantl",
"Kelp",
"Kelp forest",
"Kinetoplast",
"Kinetoplastida",
"Kohl (cosmetics)",
"Korea",
"Kunming Lake",
"Lake Ch\u016bzenji",
"Lake ecosystem",
"Lamina (algae)",
"Lamouroux",
"Laura A. Katz",
"Laura Wegener Parfrey",
"Laver (seaweed)",
"Leaf",
"Liana",
"Lichen",
"Linda Medlin",
"List of botanists",
"List of botanists by author abbreviation (W\u2013Z)",
"List of seaweeds of South Africa (disambiguation)",
"List of systems of plant taxonomy",
"Lithophyte",
"Locule",
"Lorica (biology)",
"Lourens Baas Becking",
"Macroalgae",
"Macrocyst",
"Macrocystis",
"Macrocystis pyrifera",
"Macronucleus",
"Madrepora",
"Maerl",
"Magnesium",
"Mangroves",
"Manure effluents",
"Marimo",
"Marine biology",
"Marine invertebrate",
"Mastigoneme",
"Mastigont system",
"Megaspore",
"Meiosis",
"Meristem",
"Mesostigmatophyceae",
"Metabolism",
"Michael D. Guiry",
"Microalgae",
"Microbial biogeography",
"Microbial cyst",
"Microbial ecology",
"Microbiofuels",
"Microbiology",
"Microneme",
"Micronucleus",
"Microphyte",
"Microphytes",
"Microsporangia",
"Microspore",
"Microvillus",
"Mitosis",
"Mitosome",
"Mixotroph",
"Mixotrophy",
"Molecular cuisine",
"Morphology (biology)",
"Mucilage",
"Multicellular",
"Multinucleate",
"Multinucleated",
"Myzocytosis",
"M\u0101ori people",
"NOx",
"NPR",
"National Museum of Natural History",
"Nature-based solutions",
"Navicula",
"Necrotrophy",
"Nectar",
"New Mexico",
"New Zealand",
"Niacin (nutrient)",
"Nomenclature codes",
"Non-vascular plant",
"Nori",
"North Sea",
"Nuclear division",
"Nucleomorph",
"Nusa Lembongan",
"Nut (fruit)",
"Nutraceutical",
"OSTI (identifier)",
"Office of Scientific and Technical Information",
"Omega-3 fatty acid",
"Omega-3 fatty acids",
"Oodinium",
"Opisthokont",
"Organ (biology)",
"Organism",
"Osmoregulation",
"Osmotrophy",
"Otto Friedrich M\u00fcller",
"Outline of botany",
"Ovary (botany)",
"Ovule",
"Oxygen",
"PMC (identifier)",
"PMID (identifier)",
"Pacific",
"Paleobiology (journal)",
"Paleobotany",
"Parasitic",
"Parasitism",
"Parenchymatous",
"Parietochloris incisa",
"Pedicel (botany)",
"Perianth",
"Periplast",
"Petal",
"Petiole (botany)",
"Phaeophyceae",
"Phaeophyte",
"Phagocytosis",
"Phagotrophy",
"Phanerozoic",
"Pharmaceuticals",
"Philippines",
"Phloem",
"Photobioreactor",
"Photosynthese",
"Photosynthesis",
"Photosynthetic",
"Photosynthetic pigment",
"Phototroph",
"Phototrophy",
"Phragmoplast",
"Phycobilin",
"Phycobilisome",
"Phycology",
"Phycoplast",
"Phycotechnology",
"Phyllosiphon",
"Phylogeny",
"Phylum",
"Phytochemistry",
"Phytogeography",
"Phytohormone",
"Phytomelanin",
"Phytomyxea",
"Phytoplankton",
"Pigment",
"Pit connection",
"Planktonic algae",
"Plant",
"Plant anatomy",
"Plant cell",
"Plant cuticle",
"Plant ecology",
"Plant evolution",
"Plant evolutionary developmental biology",
"Plant hormone",
"Plant morphology",
"Plant nutrition",
"Plant pathology",
"Plant physiology",
"Plant reproduction",
"Plant reproductive morphology",
"Plant stem",
"Plant taxonomy",
"Plantae",
"Plasmodesma",
"Plasmodium (life cycle)",
"Plastid",
"Ploidy",
"Pneumatocyst",
"Pollen",
"Pollen tube",
"Pollination",
"Pollinator",
"Pollution control",
"Polyphyletic",
"Potassium",
"Primoplantae",
"Prokaryote",
"Prostrate shrub",
"Protein",
"Proterozoic",
"Protist",
"Protistology",
"Prototheca",
"Protozoa",
"Psammon",
"Pseudopodia",
"Psychrophile",
"Pteridophyte",
"Pterocladiophila",
"Purple sulfur bacteria",
"Pyrena",
"Pyrenoid",
"Pyropia",
"Raceme",
"Raphidophyceae",
"Receptacle (botany)",
"Red alga",
"Red algae",
"Relict",
"Reproduction",
"Respiratory system",
"Rhizaria",
"Rhizoid",
"Rhizome",
"Rhodochytrium",
"Rhodophyta",
"Rhodophyte",
"Rhodophytes",
"Rhoptry",
"Riboflavin",
"River ecosystem",
"Root",
"Rosette (botany)",
"S2CID (identifier)",
"Saccharina japonica",
"Salt tolerance",
"Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin",
"Sap",
"Saprotrophic nutrition",
"Sargassum fusiforme",
"Scale (anatomy)",
"Scanning electron micrograph",
"Scholar-official",
"Scleractinia",
"Scotland",
"Sea lettuce",
"Sea sponge",
"Seagrasses",
"Seaweed",
"Seaweed cultivator",
"Seaweed farming",
"Seaweed fertiliser",
"Secondary growth",
"Secretion",
"Seed",
"Seed dispersal",
"Self-pollination",
"Sensu stricto",
"Sepal",
"Sessility (botany)",
"Sexual reproduction",
"Shoot",
"Shrub",
"Skeleton",
"Slime mold",
"Snow algae",
"Soil conditioner",
"Sorocarp",
"South Wales",
"Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate",
"Species Plantarum",
"Spermatophyte",
"Spirogyra",
"Spirulina (dietary supplement)",
"Spirulina (genus)",
"Sporangium",
"Spore",
"Sporophyll",
"Sporophyte",
"Sporozoan",
"Stamen",
"Staminode",
"Starch",
"Stichococcus bacillaris",
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"Stoma",
"Stonewort",
"Storage organ",
"Subshrub",
"Succulent plant",
"Sugar",
"Summer Palace",
"Superfood",
"Sustainable food system",
"Symbiodinium",
"Symbiont",
"Symbiosis",
"Syncytial",
"Synurophyceae",
"Taiwan",
"Tanzania",
"Tapetum (botany)",
"Taxa",
"Taxon",
"Taxonomic rank",
"Taxonomy (biology)",
"Tepal",
"Terrestrial plant",
"Test (biology)",
"Testate amoebae",
"Thallophyte",
"Thallus",
"The Nature Conservancy",
"Theca",
"Thermophile",
"Thiamine",
"Thorns, spines, and prickles",
"Timeline of plant evolution",
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"Toxoid",
"Tracheophyte",
"Transpiration",
"Tree",
"Trentepohlia (alga)",
"Trichocyst",
"Trichome",
"Turgor pressure",
"Turgor regulation",
"U. fasciata",
"Ulva reticulata",
"Umbel",
"Undaria pinnatifida",
"Unicellular",
"Unicellular organism",
"Unsaturated fatty acid",
"Vacuole",
"Vascular bundle",
"Vascular plant",
"Vascular tissue",
"Veganism",
"Vegetable oil",
"Vegetarianism",
"Vindhya",
"Vine",
"Viridiplantae",
"Vitamin B2",
"Vitamin B6",
"Vitamin C",
"Volvox",
"Wales",
"Wastewater treatment",
"Wayback Machine",
"Whorl (botany)",
"Wikispecies",
"William Henry Harvey",
"Wood",
"Woody plant",
"World Wildlife Fund",
"Xanthophyceae",
"Xanthophyte",
"Xylem",
"Zanzibar",
"Zinc",
"Zygote"
],
"_sections": [],
"_html": "<div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms</div>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1033289096\">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Alga\" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig\" title=\"Algae (disambiguation)\">Algae (disambiguation)</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Alga_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig\" title=\"Alga (disambiguation)\">Alga (disambiguation)</a>.</div>\n<p>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r876297439\">.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox{text-align:center;width:200px;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox th.section-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.section-content{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.list-section{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.taxon-section{text-align:center;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.image-section{text-align:center;font-size:88%}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy{margin:0 auto;text-align:left;background:transparent;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy tr{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy td{padding:1px}</style>\n</p>\n<table class=\"infobox biota biota-infobox\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\">Algae<div style=\"font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller;\">An informal term for a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotes</div><div><small>Temporal range: <div class=\"noprint\"><span style=\"display:inline-block;\"></span><span style=\"display:inline-block;\">Mesoproterozoic\u2013present</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Gibson_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gibson-2\">[2]</a></sup> <span style=\"display:inline-block;\"></span><div id=\"Timeline-row\" style=\"margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; font-size:small; position:relative; z-index:0;\">\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,192,141); left:220.50773980251px; width:15.703916975018px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,197,202); left:236.21165677753px; width:10.175705559083px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(242,249,29); left:246.38736233661px; width:3.6126376633897px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(154,217,221); left:220.50773980251px; width:29.492260197491px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Phanerozoic\" title=\"Phanerozoic\"><span style=\"color:black;\">Pha.</span></a></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,67,112); left:113.15766426554px; width:49.263240864406px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,180,98); left:162.42090512995px; width:32.84216057627px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,179,66); left:195.26306570622px; width:25.244674096293px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,53,99); left:113.15766426554px; width:107.35007553697px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Proterozoic\" title=\"Proterozoic\"><span style=\"color:black;\">Proterozoic</span></a></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(218,3,127); left:31.052262824864px; width:21.894773717514px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(244,68,159); left:52.947036542377px; width:21.894773717514px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,104,169); left:74.841810259891px; width:21.894773717514px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(249,155,193); left:96.736583977405px; width:16.421080288135px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,4,127); left:31.052262824864px; width:82.105401440676px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Archean\" title=\"Archean\"><span style=\"color:black;\">Archean</span></a></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:31.052262824864px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:31.052262824864px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Hadean\" title=\"Hadean\"><span style=\"color:white;\">Had'n</span></a></div>\n<div id=\"end-border\" style=\"position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:249px\"></div><div style=\"margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;\"><div style=\"position:absolute; height:8px; left:162.42090512995px; width:87.579094870055px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:8px; left:162.42090512995px; width:87.579094870055px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:163.42090512995px; width:85.579094870055px; background-color:#6c3;\"></div>\n</div>\n</div></div></small></div>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:NSW_seabed_1.JPG\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/220px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/330px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/440px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG 2x\" data-file-width=\"4000\" data-file-height=\"3000\" /></a>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\">A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/330px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/440px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1650\" data-file-height=\"1650\" /></a>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\">A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\"><a href=\"/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)\" title=\"Taxonomy (biology)\">Scientific classification</a><span class=\"plainlinks\" style=\".. style ..\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Life\" title=\"Edit this classification\"><img alt=\"Edit this classification\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" data-file-width=\"16\" data-file-height=\"16\" /></a></span>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\">Groups included\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Viridiplantae\" title=\"Viridiplantae\">Viridiplantae</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mesostigmatophyceae\" title=\"Mesostigmatophyceae\">Mesostigmatophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorokybophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorokybophyceae\">Chlorokybophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophyta\">Rhodophyta</a> (red algae)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Glaucophyta\">Glaucophyta</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorarachniophytes\">Chlorarachniophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">Euglenids</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokonts</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacillariophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bacillariophyceae\">Bacillariophyceae</a> (Diatoms)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Axodine\" title=\"Axodine\">Axodines</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bolidomonas\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bolidomonas\">Bolidomonas</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eustigmatophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eustigmatophyceae\">Eustigmatophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phaeophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phaeophyceae\">Phaeophyceae</a> (brown algae)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chrysophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chrysophyceae\">Chrysophyceae</a> (golden algae)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Raphidophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Raphidophyceae\">Raphidophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Synurophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Synurophyceae\">Synurophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Xanthophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Xanthophyceae\">Xanthophyceae</a> (yellow-green algae)</li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cryptophyta\">Cryptophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellata\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dinoflagellata\">Dinoflagellata</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophyta\">Haptophyta</a></li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\">Typically excluded:\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">Cyanobacteria</a> (blue-green algae)</li></ul>\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<p><b>Algae</b> (<span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><small><a href=\"/wiki/British_English\" title=\"British English\">UK</a>: </small><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:IPA/English\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/\u02c8/: primary stress follows\">\u02c8</span><span title=\"/\u00e6/: 'a' in 'bad'\">\u00e6</span><span title=\"'l' in 'lie'\">l</span><span title=\"/\u0261/: 'g' in 'guy'\">\u0261</span><span title=\"/i\u02d0/: 'ee' in 'fleece'\">i\u02d0</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><small><a href=\"/wiki/American_English\" title=\"American English\">US</a>: </small><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:IPA/English\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/\u02c8/: primary stress follows\">\u02c8</span><span title=\"/\u00e6/: 'a' in 'bad'\">\u00e6</span><span title=\"'l' in 'lie'\">l</span><span title=\"/d\u0292/: 'j' in 'jam'\">d\u0292</span><span title=\"/i\u02d0/: 'ee' in 'fleece'\">i\u02d0</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id=\"cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]</a></sup> singular <b>alga</b> <span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:IPA/English\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/\u02c8/: primary stress follows\">\u02c8</span><span title=\"/\u00e6/: 'a' in 'bad'\">\u00e6</span><span title=\"'l' in 'lie'\">l</span><span title=\"/\u0261/: 'g' in 'guy'\">\u0261</span><span title=\"/\u0259/: 'a' in 'about'\">\u0259</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthesis\" title=\"Photosynthesis\">photosynthetic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryotic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eukaryotic\">eukaryotic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">organisms</a>. It is a <a href=\"/wiki/Polyphyletic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polyphyletic\">polyphyletic</a> grouping that includes species from multiple distinct <a href=\"/wiki/Clade\" title=\"Clade\">clades</a>. Included <a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">organisms</a> range from <a href=\"/wiki/Unicellular_organism\" title=\"Unicellular organism\">unicellular</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">microalgae</a>, such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorella\" title=\"Chlorella\">Chlorella</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Prototheca\" title=\"Prototheca\">Prototheca</a></i> and the <a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">diatoms</a>, to <a href=\"/wiki/Multicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multicellular\">multicellular</a> forms, such as the <a href=\"/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera\" title=\"Macrocystis pyrifera\">giant kelp</a>, a large <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">brown algae</a> which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and <a href=\"/wiki/Autotrophic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Autotrophic\">autotrophic</a> (they generate food internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Stoma\" title=\"Stoma\">stomata</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Xylem\" title=\"Xylem\">xylem</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Phloem\" title=\"Phloem\">phloem</a> that are found in <a href=\"/wiki/Embryophyte\" title=\"Embryophyte\">land plants</a>. The largest and most complex marine algae are called <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">seaweeds</a>, while the most complex freshwater forms are the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a></i>, a <a href=\"/wiki/Phylum\" title=\"Phylum\">division</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a> which includes, for example, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Spirogyra\" title=\"Spirogyra\">Spirogyra</a></i> and <a href=\"/wiki/Stonewort\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stonewort\">stoneworts</a>.\n</p><p>No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae \"have <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophyll</a> as their primary <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment\" title=\"Photosynthetic pigment\">photosynthetic pigment</a> and lack a sterile covering of cells around their <a href=\"/wiki/Gamete\" title=\"Gamete\">reproductive cells</a>\".<sup id=\"cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]</a></sup> Likewise, the colorless <i>Prototheca</i> under <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a></i> are all devoid of any <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophyll</a>. Although <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">cyanobacteria</a> are often referred to as \"blue-green algae\", most authorities exclude all <a href=\"/wiki/Prokaryote\" title=\"Prokaryote\">prokaryotes</a> from the definition of algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-IntroBot_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IntroBot-5\">[5]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Algae constitute a polyphyletic group<sup id=\"cite_ref-IntroBot_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IntroBot-5\">[5]</a></sup> since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their <a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">plastids</a> seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria,<sup id=\"cite_ref-keeling_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-keeling-7\">[7]</a></sup> they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a> derived from <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endosymbiotic theory\">endosymbiotic</a> cyanobacteria. <a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">Diatoms</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">brown algae</a> are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory#Secondary_endosymbiosis\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endosymbiotic theory\">endosymbiotic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Red_alga\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Red alga\">red alga</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]</a></sup> Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple <a href=\"/wiki/Asexual_reproduction\" title=\"Asexual reproduction\">asexual</a> cell division to complex forms of <a href=\"/wiki/Sexual_reproduction\" title=\"Sexual reproduction\">sexual reproduction</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of <a href=\"/wiki/Bryophyte\" title=\"Bryophyte\">bryophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Rhizoid\" title=\"Rhizoid\">rhizoids</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Non-vascular_plant\" title=\"Non-vascular plant\">non-vascular plants</a>, and the <a href=\"/wiki/Root\" title=\"Root\">roots</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Leaf\" title=\"Leaf\">leaves</a>, and other <a href=\"/wiki/Organ_(biology)\" title=\"Organ (biology)\">organs</a> found in <a href=\"/wiki/Tracheophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Tracheophyte\">tracheophytes</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_plant\" title=\"Vascular plant\">vascular plants</a>). Most are <a href=\"/wiki/Phototroph\" title=\"Phototroph\">phototrophic</a>, although some are <a href=\"/wiki/Mixotroph\" title=\"Mixotroph\">mixotrophic</a>, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by <a href=\"/wiki/Osmotrophy\" title=\"Osmotrophy\">osmotrophy</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Myzocytosis\" title=\"Myzocytosis\">myzotrophy</a>, or <a href=\"/wiki/Phagocytosis\" title=\"Phagocytosis\">phagotrophy</a>. Some unicellular species of <a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a>, many <a href=\"/wiki/Golden_algae\" title=\"Golden algae\">golden algae</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">euglenids</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">dinoflagellates</a>, and other algae have become <a href=\"/wiki/Heterotroph\" title=\"Heterotroph\">heterotrophs</a> (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]</a></sup> Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the <a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexans\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Apicomplexans\">apicomplexans</a>, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed <a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">plastids</a>, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">cyanobacteria</a> that produce <a href=\"/wiki/Oxygen\" title=\"Oxygen\">oxygen</a> as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as <a href=\"/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria\" title=\"Purple sulfur bacteria\">purple</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria\" title=\"Green sulfur bacteria\">green sulfur bacteria</a>. Fossilized filamentous algae from the <a href=\"/wiki/Vindhya\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vindhya\">Vindhya</a> basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.<sup id=\"cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_farming\" title=\"Seaweed farming\">seaweed farming</a> practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in <a href=\"/wiki/East_Asia\" title=\"East Asia\">East Asia</a> food cultures. More modern <a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">algaculture</a> applications extend the <a href=\"/wiki/Edible_seaweed\" title=\"Edible seaweed\">food traditions</a> for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for <a href=\"/wiki/Bioremediation\" title=\"Bioremediation\">bioremediation</a> or pollution control, transforming sunlight into <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_fuel\" title=\"Algae fuel\">algae fuels</a> or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_sequestration\" title=\"Carbon sequestration\">carbon sequestration</a> in order to <a href=\"/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation\" title=\"Climate change mitigation\">mitigate climate change</a> while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.<sup id=\"cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<div id=\"toc\" class=\"toc\" role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"mw-toc-heading\"><input type=\"checkbox\" role=\"button\" id=\"toctogglecheckbox\" class=\"toctogglecheckbox\" style=\"display:none\" /><div class=\"toctitle\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><h2 id=\"mw-toc-heading\">Contents</h2><span class=\"toctogglespan\"><label class=\"toctogglelabel\" for=\"toctogglecheckbox\"></label></span></div>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-1\"><a href=\"#Etymology_and_study\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Etymology and study</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-2\"><a href=\"#Classifications\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Classifications</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-3\"><a href=\"#Algal_characteristics_basic_to_primary_classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Algal characteristics basic to primary classification</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-4\"><a href=\"#History_of_classification_of_algae\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">History of classification of algae</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-5\"><a href=\"#Relationship_to_land_plants\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Relationship to land plants</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-6\"><a href=\"#Morphology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Morphology</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-7\"><a href=\"#Turfs\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Turfs</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-8\"><a href=\"#Physiology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Physiology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-9\"><a href=\"#Symbiotic_algae\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Symbiotic algae</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-10\"><a href=\"#Lichens\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Lichens</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-11\"><a href=\"#Coral_reefs\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Coral reefs</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-12\"><a href=\"#Sea_sponges\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Sea sponges</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-13\"><a href=\"#Life_cycle\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Life cycle</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-14\"><a href=\"#Numbers\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Numbers</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-15\"><a href=\"#Distribution\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Distribution</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-16\"><a href=\"#Ecology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Ecology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-17\"><a href=\"#Cultural_associations\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cultural associations</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-18\"><a href=\"#Cultivation\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cultivation</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-19\"><a href=\"#Seaweed_farming\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Seaweed farming</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-20\"><a href=\"#Bioreactors\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bioreactors</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-21\"><a href=\"#Uses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Uses</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-22\"><a href=\"#Agar\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Agar</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-23\"><a href=\"#Alginates\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Alginates</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-24\"><a href=\"#Energy_source\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Energy source</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-25\"><a href=\"#Fertilizer\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Fertilizer</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-26\"><a href=\"#Nutrition\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Nutrition</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-27\"><a href=\"#Pollution_control\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Pollution control</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-28\"><a href=\"#Polymers\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Polymers</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-29\"><a href=\"#Bioremediation\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bioremediation</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-30\"><a href=\"#Pigments\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Pigments</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-31\"><a href=\"#Stabilizing_substances\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Stabilizing substances</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-32\"><a href=\"#Additional_images\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">14</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Additional images</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-33\"><a href=\"#See_also\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">15</span> <span class=\"toctext\">See also</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-34\"><a href=\"#References\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">16</span> <span class=\"toctext\">References</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-35\"><a href=\"#Bibliography\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bibliography</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-36\"><a href=\"#General\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">General</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-37\"><a href=\"#Regional\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Regional</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-38\"><a href=\"#Britain_and_Ireland\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Britain and Ireland</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-39\"><a href=\"#Australia\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Australia</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-40\"><a href=\"#New_Zealand\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">New Zealand</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-41\"><a href=\"#Europe\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Europe</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-42\"><a href=\"#Arctic\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Arctic</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-43\"><a href=\"#Greenland\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Greenland</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-44\"><a href=\"#Faroe_Islands\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Faroe Islands</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-45\"><a href=\"#Canary_Islands\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Canary Islands</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-46\"><a href=\"#Morocco\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Morocco</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-47\"><a href=\"#South_Africa\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">South Africa</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-48\"><a href=\"#North_America\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.11</span> <span class=\"toctext\">North America</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-49\"><a href=\"#External_links\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">18</span> <span class=\"toctext\">External links</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Etymology_and_study\">Etymology and study</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=1\" title=\"Edit section: Etymology and study\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>The singular <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">alga</i></span> is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English.<sup id=\"cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Etymology\" title=\"Etymology\">etymology</a> is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">alg\u0113re</i></span>, 'be cold',<sup id=\"cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]</a></sup> no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">alliga</i></span>, 'binding, entwining'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The <a href=\"/wiki/Ancient_Greek\" title=\"Ancient Greek\">Ancient Greek</a> word for 'seaweed' was <span title=\"Greek-language text\"><span lang=\"el\">\u03c6\u1fe6\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2</span></span> (<span title=\"Greek-language text\"><i lang=\"el-Latn\">ph\u0177kos</i></span>), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">f\u016bcus</i></span>, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the <a href=\"/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew\" title=\"Biblical Hebrew\">Biblical</a> <span title=\"Hebrew-language text\"><span lang=\"he\" dir=\"rtl\">\u05e4\u05d5\u05da</span></span> (<span title=\"Hebrew-language text\"><i lang=\"he-Latn\">p\u016bk</i></span>), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a <a href=\"/wiki/Kohl_(cosmetics)\" title=\"Kohl (cosmetics)\">cosmetic eye-shadow</a> used by the <a href=\"/wiki/Ancient_Egypt\" title=\"Ancient Egypt\">ancient Egyptians</a> and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.<sup id=\"cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either <a href=\"/wiki/Phycology\" title=\"Phycology\">phycology</a> or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name <i>f\u016bcus</i> appears in a number of <a href=\"/wiki/Taxon\" title=\"Taxon\">taxa</a>.\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classifications\">Classifications</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=2\" title=\"Edit section: Classifications\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Algae\">wikispecies:Algae</a></div><p>The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are <b>-<i>phyta</i></b> for division, <i>-phyceae</i> for class, <i>-phycideae</i> for subclass, <i>-ales</i> for order, <i>-inales</i> for suborder, <i>-aceae</i> for family, <i>-oidease</i> for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species.\n</p><h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Algal_characteristics_basic_to_primary_classification\">Algal characteristics basic to primary classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=3\" title=\"Edit section: Algal characteristics basic to primary classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_(biology)\" title=\"Cell (biology)\">cell</a> structure.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_classification_of_algae\">History of classification of algae</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=4\" title=\"Edit section: History of classification of algae\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Although <a href=\"/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Carolus Linnaeus\">Carolus Linnaeus</a> (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class <a href=\"/wiki/Cryptogam\" title=\"Cryptogam\">Cryptogamia</a>, he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae.\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Jean_Pierre_%C3%89tienne_Vaucher\" title=\"Jean Pierre \u00c9tienne Vaucher\">Jean Pierre \u00c9tienne Vaucher</a> (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While <a href=\"/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Friedrich_Link\" title=\"Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link\">Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link</a> (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, <a href=\"/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey\" title=\"William Henry Harvey\">William Henry Harvey</a> (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. <a href=\"/wiki/J._G._Agardh\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"J. G. Agardh\">J. G. Agardh</a> (1849\u20131898) divided algae into six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a division created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, <a href=\"/wiki/Adolf_Engler\" title=\"Adolf Engler\">Adolf Engler</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Karl_Anton_Eugen_Prantl\" title=\"Karl Anton Eugen Prantl\">Karl A. E. Prantl</a> (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows:<sup id=\"cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<ol><li>Schizophyta</li>\n<li>Phytosarcodina</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">Flagellata</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">Dinoflagellata</a></li>\n<li>Bacillariophyta</li>\n<li>Conjugatae</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyceae\" title=\"Chlorophyceae\">Chlorophyceae</a></li>\n<li>Charophyta</li>\n<li>Phaeophyceae</li>\n<li>Rhodophyceae</li>\n<li>Eumycetes (<a href=\"/wiki/Fungus\" title=\"Fungus\">Fungi</a>)</li></ol>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/220px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/330px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/440px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1600\" data-file-height=\"1600\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>False-color <a href=\"/wiki/Scanning_electron_micrograph\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Scanning electron micrograph\">scanning electron micrograph</a> of the unicellular <a href=\"/wiki/Coccolithophore\" title=\"Coccolithophore\">coccolithophore</a> <i><a href=\"/wiki/Gephyrocapsa\" title=\"Gephyrocapsa\">Gephyrocapsa</a> oceanica</i></div></div></div>\n<p>The algae contain <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a> that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular <a href=\"/wiki/DNA\" title=\"DNA\">DNA</a> like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">cyanobacteria</a>. However, the exact origin of the <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a> is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Phylogeny\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phylogeny\">Phylogeny</a> based on <a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">plastid</a><sup id=\"cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]</a></sup> not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:\n</p>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1129740115\">.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.1em;padding:0 0.15em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:\"\\2060 \"}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0 0.15em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">Cyanobacteria</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyte\" title=\"Glaucophyte\">Glaucophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">rhodoplasts\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophytes\">Rhodophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokonts</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">Cryptophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophytes\">Haptophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">chloroplasts\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Euglenophyte\">Euglenophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorophyte\">Chlorophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115\"/>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Charophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Charophyte\">Charophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Embryophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Embryophytes\">Land plants (Embryophyta)</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorarachniophytes\">Chlorarachniophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<table class=\"wikitable\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Supergroup affiliation</th>\n<th>Members</th>\n<th><a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">Endosymbiont</a></th>\n<th>Summary\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Primoplantae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Primoplantae\">Primoplantae</a>/<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophyta\">Rhodophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Glaucophyta\">Glaucophyta</a></li></ul>\n</td>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">Cyanobacteria</a>\n</td>\n<td>These algae have \"primary\" <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a>, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophylls</a> <i>a</i> and <i>c</i> (often), and <a href=\"/wiki/Phycobilin\" title=\"Phycobilin\">phycobilins</a>, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a> is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the <a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a>, and land plants are grouped together as the <a href=\"/wiki/Viridiplantae\" title=\"Viridiplantae\">Viridiplantae</a>.\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Excavata\" title=\"Excavata\">Excavata</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Rhizaria\" title=\"Rhizaria\">Rhizaria</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorarachniophytes\">Chlorarachniophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">Euglenids</a></li></ul>\n</td>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">Green algae</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<p>These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]</a></sup> Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae.\n</p><p><b>Chlorarachniophytes</b>, which belong to the phylum <a href=\"/wiki/Cercozoa\" title=\"Cercozoa\">Cercozoa</a>, contain a small <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleomorph\" title=\"Nucleomorph\">nucleomorph</a>, which is a <a href=\"/wiki/Relict\" title=\"Relict\">relict</a> of the algae's <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_nucleus\" title=\"Cell nucleus\">nucleus</a>.\n</p><p><b>Euglenids</b>, which belong to the phylum <a href=\"/wiki/Euglenozoa\" title=\"Euglenozoa\">Euglenozoa</a>, live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through <a href=\"/wiki/Myzocytosis\" title=\"Myzocytosis\">myzocytosis</a> rather than <a href=\"/wiki/Phagocytosis\" title=\"Phagocytosis\">phagocytosis</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]</a></sup>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Halvaria\" title=\"Halvaria\">Halvaria</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Hacrobia\" title=\"Hacrobia\">Hacrobia</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokonts</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">Dinoflagellates</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophyta\">Haptophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">Cryptomonads</a></li></ul>\n</td>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">Red algae</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<p>These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>, and phycobilins. The shape can vary; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.<sup id=\"cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]</a></sup>\n</p><p>In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleomorph\" title=\"Nucleomorph\">nucleomorph</a> in <a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">cryptomonads</a>, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the <a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">heterokonts</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophyta\">Haptophyta</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">cryptomonads</a> are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.<sup id=\"cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred.<sup id=\"cite_ref-keeling_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-keeling-7\">[7]</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexa\" title=\"Apicomplexa\">Apicomplexa</a>, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called <a href=\"/wiki/Apicoplast\" title=\"Apicoplast\">apicoplasts</a>, which are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with <a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">dinoflagellate</a> chloroplasts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-keeling_7-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-keeling-7\">[7]</a></sup>\n</p>\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_(Titelblatt).png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/170px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"247\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/255px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/340px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1005\" data-file-height=\"1462\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_(Titelblatt).png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>title page of <a href=\"/wiki/Samuel_Gottlieb_Gmelin\" title=\"Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin\">Gmelin's</a> <i>Historia Fucorum</i>, dated 1768</div></div></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus\" title=\"Carl Linnaeus\">Linnaeus</a>, in <i><a href=\"/wiki/Species_Plantarum\" title=\"Species Plantarum\">Species Plantarum</a></i> (1753),<sup id=\"cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]</a></sup> the starting point for modern <a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature\" title=\"Botanical nomenclature\">botanical nomenclature</a>, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]</a></sup> In <i><a href=\"/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae\" title=\"10th edition of Systema Naturae\">Systema Naturae</a></i>, Linnaeus described the genera <i><a href=\"/wiki/Volvox\" title=\"Volvox\">Volvox</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Corallina\" title=\"Corallina\">Corallina</a></i>, and a species of <i><a href=\"/wiki/Acetabularia\" title=\"Acetabularia\">Acetabularia</a></i> (as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Madrepora\" title=\"Madrepora\">Madrepora</a></i>), among the animals.\n</p><p>In 1768, <a href=\"/wiki/Samuel_Gottlieb_Gmelin\" title=\"Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin\">Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin</a> (1744\u20131774) published the <i>Historia Fucorum</i>, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_biology\" title=\"Marine biology\">marine biology</a> to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.<sup id=\"cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey\" title=\"William Henry Harvey\">W. H. Harvey</a> (1811\u20131866) and <a href=\"/wiki/Lamouroux\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Lamouroux\">Lamouroux</a> (1813)<sup id=\"cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Medlin_et_al-30\">[30]</a></sup> were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]</a></sup>\n</p><p>At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., <a href=\"/wiki/Otto_Friedrich_M%C3%BCller\" title=\"Otto Friedrich M\u00fcller\">O. F. M\u00fcller</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg\" title=\"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg\">Ehrenberg</a>) studying the <a href=\"/wiki/Infusoria\" title=\"Infusoria\">Infusoria</a> (microscopic organisms). Unlike <a href=\"/wiki/Macroalgae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Macroalgae\">macroalgae</a>, which were clearly viewed as plants, <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">microalgae</a> were frequently considered animals because they are often motile.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Medlin_et_al-30\">[30]</a></sup> Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the \"algae\" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.\n</p><p>Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cyanophyte\">cyanophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophyte\">rhodophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chrysophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chrysophyte\">chrysophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Xanthophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Xanthophyte\">xanthophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">bacillariophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Phaeophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phaeophyte\">phaeophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate#history\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">pyrrhophytes</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">cryptophytes</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Dinophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dinophyte\">dinophytes</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Euglenophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Euglenophyte\">euglenophytes</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorophyte\">chlorophytes</a>. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., <a href=\"/wiki/Bolidophyceae\" title=\"Bolidophyceae\">Bolidophyceae</a>), and others were splintered from older groups: <a href=\"/wiki/Charophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Charophyte\">charophytes</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyte\" title=\"Glaucophyte\">glaucophytes</a> (from chlorophytes), many <a href=\"/wiki/Heterokontophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokontophyte\">heterokontophytes</a> (e.g., <a href=\"/wiki/Synurophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Synurophyceae\">synurophytes</a> from chrysophytes, or <a href=\"/wiki/Eustigmatophyte\" title=\"Eustigmatophyte\">eustigmatophytes</a> from xanthophytes), <a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyte\" title=\"Haptophyte\">haptophytes</a> (from chrysophytes), and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophyte\" title=\"Chlorarachniophyte\">chlorarachniophytes</a> (from xanthophytes).\n</p><p>With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in <a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">Protista</a>, later also abandoned in favour of <a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryota\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eukaryota\">Eukaryota</a>. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as <a href=\"/wiki/Protozoa\" title=\"Protozoa\">protozoans</a> in the past still have duplicated classifications (see <a href=\"/wiki/Ambiregnal_protist\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ambiregnal protist\">ambiregnal protists</a>).\n</p><p>Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae <i><a href=\"/wiki/Prototheca\" title=\"Prototheca\">Prototheca</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Helicosporidium\" title=\"Helicosporidium\">Helicosporidium</a></i>, parasites of metazoans, or <i><a href=\"/wiki/Cephaleuros\" title=\"Cephaleuros\">Cephaleuros</a></i>, parasites of plants) were originally classified as <a href=\"/wiki/Fungi\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fungi\">fungi</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Sporozoan\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sporozoan\">sporozoans</a>, or <a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">protistans</a> of <i><a href=\"/wiki/Incertae_sedis\" title=\"Incertae sedis\">incertae sedis</a></i>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]</a></sup> while others (e.g., the green algae <i><a href=\"/wiki/Phyllosiphon\" title=\"Phyllosiphon\">Phyllosiphon</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodochytrium\" title=\"Rhodochytrium\">Rhodochytrium</a></i>, parasites of plants, or the red algae <i><a href=\"/wiki/Pterocladiophila\" title=\"Pterocladiophila\">Pterocladiophila</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Gelidiocolax_mammillatus&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Gelidiocolax mammillatus (page does not exist)\">Gelidiocolax mammillatus</a></i>, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates <i><a href=\"/wiki/Oodinium\" title=\"Oodinium\">Oodinium</a></i>, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorochytrium\" title=\"Chlorochytrium\">Chlorochytrium</a></i>), but later were seen as <a href=\"/wiki/Endophytic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endophytic\">endophytic</a> algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]</a></sup> Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Beggiatoa\" title=\"Beggiatoa\">Beggiatoa</a></i>) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the <a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexan\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Apicomplexan\">apicomplexans</a> are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Relationship_to_land_plants\">Relationship to land plants</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=5\" title=\"Edit section: Relationship to land plants\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chara_(alga)\" title=\"Chara (alga)\">Chara</a></i> almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic <a href=\"/wiki/Alternation_of_generations\" title=\"Alternation of generations\">alternation of generations</a> and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.<sup id=\"cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Morphology\">Morphology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=6\" title=\"Edit section: Morphology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/170px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"269\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/255px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/340px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1455\" data-file-height=\"2301\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>The <a href=\"/wiki/Kelp_forest\" title=\"Kelp forest\">kelp forest</a> exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus</div></div></div>\n<p>A range of algal <a href=\"/wiki/Morphology_(biology)\" title=\"Morphology (biology)\">morphologies</a> is exhibited, and <a href=\"/wiki/Convergent_evolution\" title=\"Convergent evolution\">convergence</a> of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular <a href=\"/wiki/Thallus\" title=\"Thallus\">thalli</a> are the <a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">reds</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">browns</a>, and some <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">chlorophytes</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup> Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the <a href=\"/wiki/Florideophyceae\" title=\"Florideophyceae\">florideophyte</a> reds, various browns, and the charophytes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup> The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the <a href=\"/wiki/Horsetail\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Horsetail\">horsetails</a> occur at the nodes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Conceptacle\" title=\"Conceptacle\">Conceptacles</a> are another <a href=\"/wiki/Polyphyletic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polyphyletic\">polyphyletic</a> trait; they appear in the <a href=\"/wiki/Coralline_algae\" title=\"Coralline algae\">coralline algae</a> and the <a href=\"/wiki/Hildenbrandiales\" title=\"Hildenbrandiales\">Hildenbrandiales</a>, as well as the browns.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Most of the simpler algae are <a href=\"/wiki/Unicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Unicellular\">unicellular</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">flagellates</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Amoeboid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Amoeboid\">amoeboids</a>, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_life_cycle\" title=\"Biological life cycle\">lifecycle</a> of a species, are\n</p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Colony_(biology)\" title=\"Colony (biology)\">Colonial</a>: small, regular groups of motile cells</li>\n<li>Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in <a href=\"/wiki/Mucilage\" title=\"Mucilage\">mucilage</a></li>\n<li>Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls</li>\n<li>Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage</li>\n<li>Filamentous: a string of connected nonmotile cells, sometimes branching</li>\n<li>Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues</li></ul>\n<p>In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,<sup id=\"cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]</a></sup>\u2014some of which may reach 50 m in length (<a href=\"/wiki/Kelp\" title=\"Kelp\">kelps</a>)<sup id=\"cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]</a></sup>\u2014the red algae,<sup id=\"cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]</a></sup> and the green algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]</a></sup> The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see <a href=\"/wiki/Charales\" title=\"Charales\">Charales</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a>), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the <a href=\"/wiki/Embryophyte\" title=\"Embryophyte\">Embryophytes</a>.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Turfs\">Turfs</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=7\" title=\"Edit section: Turfs\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like <a href=\"/wiki/Coral_reef\" title=\"Coral reef\">corals</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Kelp_forest#Kelp\" title=\"Kelp forest\">kelps</a>, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed:<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<ul><li>Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup></li>\n<li>Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup></li>\n<li>Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm).<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1097763485\">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class=\"box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content\" role=\"presentation\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"mbox-image\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"[icon]\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"20\" height=\"14\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"44\" data-file-height=\"31\" /></a></td><td class=\"mbox-text\"><div class=\"mbox-text-span\">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=\">adding to it</a>. <span class=\"date-container\"><i>(<span class=\"date\">February 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physiology\">Physiology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=8\" title=\"Edit section: Physiology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>Many algae, particularly members of the <a href=\"/wiki/Characeae\" title=\"Characeae\">Characeae</a> species,<sup id=\"cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]</a></sup> have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, <a href=\"/wiki/Osmoregulation\" title=\"Osmoregulation\">osmoregulation</a>, <a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Turgor_regulation&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Turgor regulation (page does not exist)\">turgor regulation</a>,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\"><span title=\"how is turgor regulation distinct from osmoregulation (June 2021)\">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Salt_tolerance\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Salt tolerance\">salt tolerance</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Cytoplasmic_streaming\" title=\"Cytoplasmic streaming\">cytoplasmic streaming</a>, and the generation of <a href=\"/wiki/Action_potentials\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Action potentials\">action potentials</a>.\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Phytohormone\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phytohormone\">Phytohormones</a> are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.<sup id=\"cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symbiotic_algae\">Symbiotic algae</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=9\" title=\"Edit section: Symbiotic algae\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>Some species of algae form <a href=\"/wiki/Symbiosis\" title=\"Symbiosis\">symbiotic relationships</a> with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Lichens\">Lichens</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=10\" title=\"Edit section: Lichens\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\">Lichen</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_(stevefe).jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/220px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"170\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/330px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/440px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"2047\" data-file-height=\"1581\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_(stevefe).jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Rock lichens in Ireland</div></div></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\">Lichens</a> are defined by the <a href=\"/wiki/International_Association_for_Lichenology\" title=\"International Association for Lichenology\">International Association for Lichenology</a> to be \"an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic <a href=\"/wiki/Symbiont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Symbiont\">symbiont</a> resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure\".<sup id=\"cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]</a></sup> The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the <a href=\"/wiki/Ascomycota\" title=\"Ascomycota\">Ascomycota</a> with a few from the <a href=\"/wiki/Basidiomycota\" title=\"Basidiomycota\">Basidiomycota</a>. In nature, they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate.<sup id=\"cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]</a></sup> One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence \"photobiont\" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]</a></sup> The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.<sup id=\"cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Trentepohlia_(alga)\" title=\"Trentepohlia (alga)\">Trentepohlia</a> is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Aerophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Aerophyte\">aerophytes</a></i>) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Coral_reefs\">Coral reefs</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=11\" title=\"Edit section: Coral reefs\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Coral\" title=\"Coral\">Coral</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Coral_reef\" title=\"Coral reef\">Coral reef</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Symbiodinium\" title=\"Symbiodinium\">Symbiodinium</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Coral_Reef.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/220px-Coral_Reef.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/330px-Coral_Reef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/440px-Coral_Reef.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"3593\" data-file-height=\"2400\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Coral_Reef.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Floridian coral reef</div></div></div> <p><a href=\"/wiki/Coral_reef\" title=\"Coral reef\">Coral reefs</a> are accumulated from the <a href=\"/wiki/Calcareous\" title=\"Calcareous\">calcareous</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Exoskeleton\" title=\"Exoskeleton\">exoskeletons</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_invertebrate\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Marine invertebrate\">marine invertebrates</a> of the order <a href=\"/wiki/Scleractinia\" title=\"Scleractinia\">Scleractinia</a> (stony <a href=\"/wiki/Coral\" title=\"Coral\">corals</a>). These <a href=\"/wiki/Animal#Food_and_energy_sourcing\" title=\"Animal\">animals</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Metabolism\" title=\"Metabolism\">metabolize</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Sugar#Chemistry\" title=\"Sugar\">sugar</a> and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including <a href=\"/wiki/Secretion\" title=\"Secretion\">secretion</a> of the exoskeleton, with water and <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_dioxide\" title=\"Carbon dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a> as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">endosymbionts</a> in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (<a href=\"/wiki/Hermatypic_coral\" title=\"Hermatypic coral\">hermatypic corals</a>) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus <i><a href=\"/wiki/Symbiodinium\" title=\"Symbiodinium\">Symbiodinium</a></i> to be in a healthy condition.<sup id=\"cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]</a></sup> The loss of <i>Symbiodinium</i> from the host is known as <a href=\"/wiki/Coral_bleaching\" title=\"Coral bleaching\">coral bleaching</a>, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.\n</p><h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sea_sponges\">Sea sponges</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=12\" title=\"Edit section: Sea sponges\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Sea_sponge\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sea sponge\">Sea sponge</a></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">Endosymbiontic</a> green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Halichondria_panicea\" title=\"Halichondria panicea\">Halichondria panicea</a></i>). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_cycle\">Life cycle</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=13\" title=\"Edit section: Life cycle\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Conceptacle\" title=\"Conceptacle\">Conceptacle</a></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">Rhodophyta</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokontophyta</a>, the three main algal <a href=\"/wiki/Phylum\" title=\"Phylum\">divisions</a>, have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are <a href=\"/wiki/Ploidy\" title=\"Ploidy\">diploid</a>, a sexual phase where the cells are <a href=\"/wiki/Haploid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haploid\">haploid</a>, followed by fusion of the male and female <a href=\"/wiki/Gamete\" title=\"Gamete\">gametes</a>. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a <a href=\"/wiki/Zygote\" title=\"Zygote\">zygote</a>. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]</a></sup> Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during <a href=\"/wiki/Meiosis\" title=\"Meiosis\">meiosis</a>, a key stage of the sexual cycle.<sup id=\"cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]</a></sup> However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction.<sup id=\"cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]</a></sup> Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Numbers\">Numbers</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=14\" title=\"Edit section: Numbers\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/220px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"154\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/330px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/440px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"3908\" data-file-height=\"2741\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Algae on coastal rocks at <a href=\"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%A2%AF%E5%9D%AA\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"zh:\u77f3\u68af\u576a\">Shihtiping</a> in <a href=\"/wiki/Taiwan\" title=\"Taiwan\">Taiwan</a></div></div></div>\n<p>The <i>Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium</i> (located in the <a href=\"/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History\" title=\"National Museum of Natural History\">National Museum of Natural History</a>) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).<sup id=\"cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]</a></sup> Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,<sup id=\"cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]</a></sup> in the <a href=\"/wiki/British_Isles\" title=\"British Isles\">British Isles</a> the <i>UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report</i> estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: \"It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...\"\n</p><p>Regional and group estimates have been made, as well:\n</p>\n<ul><li>5,000\u20135,500 species of red algae worldwide</li>\n<li>\"some 1,300 in Australian Seas\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]</a></sup></li>\n<li>400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,<sup id=\"cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]</a></sup> and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.<sup id=\"cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]</a></sup> Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_seaweeds_of_South_Africa_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig\" title=\"List of seaweeds of South Africa (disambiguation)\">List of seaweeds of South Africa</a>. These exclude <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a> and crustose corallines.</li>\n<li>669 marine species from California (US)<sup id=\"cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]</a></sup></li>\n<li>642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland<sup id=\"cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<p>and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.\n</p><p>The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.<sup id=\"cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Distribution\">Distribution</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=15\" title=\"Edit section: Distribution\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of <a href=\"/wiki/Phytogeography\" title=\"Phytogeography\">phytogeography</a> in the mid-19th century.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of <a href=\"/wiki/Spore\" title=\"Spore\">spores</a> analogously to the dispersal of <a href=\"/wiki/Plantae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Plantae\">Plantae</a> by <a href=\"/wiki/Seed\" title=\"Seed\">seeds</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Spore\" title=\"Spore\">spores</a>. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands.\n</p><p>The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.<sup id=\"cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]</a></sup>\n</p><p>To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Antarctica\" title=\"Antarctica\">Antarctica</a>, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as \"<a href=\"/wiki/Pacific\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pacific\">Pacific</a> algae\" or \"<a href=\"/wiki/North_Sea\" title=\"North Sea\">North Sea</a> algae\". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Ulva_reticulata&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Ulva reticulata (page does not exist)\">Ulva reticulata</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=U._fasciata&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"U. fasciata (page does not exist)\">U. fasciata</a></i> travelled from the mainland to <a href=\"/wiki/Hawaii\" title=\"Hawaii\">Hawaii</a> in this manner.\n</p><p>Mapping is possible for select species only: \"there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns.\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]</a></sup> For example, <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Clathromorphum&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Clathromorphum (page does not exist)\">Clathromorphum</a></i> is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.<sup id=\"cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]</a></sup> However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the \"difficulties of undertaking such studies.\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ecology\">Ecology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=16\" title=\"Edit section: Ecology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/220px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"176\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/330px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/440px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"640\" data-file-height=\"512\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Phytoplankton, <a href=\"/wiki/Lake_Ch%C5%ABzenji\" title=\"Lake Ch\u016bzenji\">Lake Ch\u016bzenji</a></div></div></div>\n<p>Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on <a href=\"/wiki/Snow_algae\" title=\"Snow algae\">snow</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Ice_algae\" title=\"Ice algae\">ice</a>. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under 100 m (330 ft) deep; however, some such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Navicula\" title=\"Navicula\">Navicula</a> pennata</i> have been recorded to a depth of 360 m (1,180 ft).<sup id=\"cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]</a></sup> A type of algae, <i>Ancylonema nordenskioeldii</i>, was found in <a href=\"/wiki/Greenland\" title=\"Greenland\">Greenland</a> in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet.<sup id=\"cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]</a></sup> Same algae was found in the <a href=\"/wiki/Italian_Alps\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Italian Alps\">Italian Alps</a>, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.<sup id=\"cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (<a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>) provide the food base for most marine <a href=\"/wiki/Food_chain\" title=\"Food chain\">food chains</a>. In very high densities (<a href=\"/wiki/Algal_bloom\" title=\"Algal bloom\">algal blooms</a>), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or <a href=\"/wiki/Asphyxiate\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Asphyxiate\">asphyxiate</a> other life forms.\n</p><p>Algae can be used as <a href=\"/wiki/Indicator_organism\" title=\"Indicator organism\">indicator organisms</a> to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Omar2010_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Omar2010-73\">[73]</a></sup> In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Omar2010_73-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Omar2010-73\">[73]</a></sup> To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Omar2010_73-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Omar2010-73\">[73]</a></sup>\n</p><p>On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: <a href=\"/wiki/Aquatic_plant\" title=\"Aquatic plant\">aquatic</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">planktonic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Benthic_zone\" title=\"Benthic zone\">benthic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_biology\" title=\"Marine biology\">marine</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem\" title=\"Freshwater ecosystem\">freshwater</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Lake_ecosystem\" title=\"Lake ecosystem\">lentic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/River_ecosystem\" title=\"River ecosystem\">lotic</a>),<sup id=\"cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Terrestrial_plant\" title=\"Terrestrial plant\">terrestrial</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Aerobiology\" title=\"Aerobiology\">aerial</a> (subaerial),<sup id=\"cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Lithophyte\" title=\"Lithophyte\">lithophytic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Halophyte\" title=\"Halophyte\">halophytic</a> (or <a href=\"/wiki/Euryhaline\" title=\"Euryhaline\">euryhaline</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Psammon\" title=\"Psammon\">psammon</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Thermophile\" title=\"Thermophile\">thermophilic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Psychrophile\" title=\"Psychrophile\">cryophilic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Epibiont\" title=\"Epibiont\">epibiont</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Epiphyte\" title=\"Epiphyte\">epiphytic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Epizoic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Epizoic\">epizoic</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">endosymbiont</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Endophytic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endophytic\">endophytic</a>, endozoic), <a href=\"/wiki/Parasitic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parasitic\">parasitic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Calcareous\" title=\"Calcareous\">calcifilic</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\">lichenic</a> (phycobiont).<sup id=\"cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cultural_associations\">Cultural associations</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=17\" title=\"Edit section: Cultural associations\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>In <a href=\"/wiki/Classical_Chinese\" title=\"Classical Chinese\">classical Chinese</a>, the word <span title=\"Chinese-language text\"><span lang=\"zh\"><a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:\u85fb\">\u85fb</a></span></span> is used both for \"algae\" and (in the modest tradition of the <a href=\"/wiki/Scholar-official\" title=\"Scholar-official\">imperial scholars</a>) for \"literary talent\". The third island in <a href=\"/wiki/Kunming_Lake\" title=\"Kunming Lake\">Kunming Lake</a> beside the <a href=\"/wiki/Summer_Palace\" title=\"Summer Palace\">Summer Palace</a> in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao (\u85fb\u9452\u5802\u5cf6), which thus simultaneously means \"Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall\" and \"Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent\".\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cultivation\">Cultivation</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=18\" title=\"Edit section: Cultivation\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"excerpt-block\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1066933788\">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref\">This section is an excerpt from <a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">Algaculture</a>.<span class=\"mw-editsection-like plainlinks\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algaculture&action=edit\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></div><div class=\"excerpt\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">Algaculture</a> is a form of <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">aquaculture</a> involving the farming of species of algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Algaculture_:1_77-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Algaculture_:1-77\">[77]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">microalgae</a> (also referred to as <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Microphytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Microphytes\">microphytes</a>, or <a href=\"/wiki/Planktonic_algae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Planktonic algae\">planktonic algae</a>). <a href=\"/wiki/Macroalgae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Macroalgae\">Macroalgae</a>, commonly known as <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">seaweed</a>, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_scrubber\" title=\"Algae scrubber\">algae scrubbers</a> using upflowing air bubbles in small containers).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)\">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>\n</p><p>Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production of <a href=\"/wiki/Nutraceutical\" title=\"Nutraceutical\">nutraceuticals</a> such as <a href=\"/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acids\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Omega-3 fatty acids\">omega-3 fatty acids</a> (as algal oil)<sup id=\"cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]</a></sup> or natural food <a href=\"/wiki/Colorants\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Colorants\">colorants</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Dyes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dyes\">dyes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Food\" title=\"Food\">food</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Fertilizer\" title=\"Fertilizer\">fertilizers</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Bioplastics\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bioplastics\">bioplastics</a>, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/<a href=\"/wiki/Commercial_fish_feed\" title=\"Commercial fish feed\">aquaculture</a> feed, <a href=\"/wiki/Pharmaceuticals\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pharmaceuticals\">pharmaceuticals</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Algal_fuel\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Algal fuel\">algal fuel</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3-81\">[81]</a></sup> and can also be used as a means of <a href=\"/wiki/Pollution_control\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pollution control\">pollution control</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Nature-based_solutions\" title=\"Nature-based solutions\">natural</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Seaweed_farming_and_algae\" title=\"Carbon sequestration\">carbon sequestration</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-82\">[82]</a></sup>\n</p>\nGlobal production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Algaculture_:0_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Algaculture_:0-83\">[83]</a></sup> Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging <a href=\"/wiki/Bioeconomy\" title=\"Bioeconomy\">bioeconomy</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]</a></sup> Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a future <a href=\"/wiki/Healthy_diet\" title=\"Healthy diet\">healthy</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Sustainable_food_system\" title=\"Sustainable food system\">sustainable food system</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213-85\">[85]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-82\">[82]</a></sup></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Seaweed_farming\">Seaweed farming</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=19\" title=\"Edit section: Seaweed farming\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"excerpt-block\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref\">This section is an excerpt from <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_farming\" title=\"Seaweed farming\">Seaweed farming</a>.<span class=\"mw-editsection-like plainlinks\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seaweed_farming&action=edit\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></div><div class=\"excerpt\">\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Eucheuma_farming,_Philippines_(5211726476).jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/300px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"191\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/450px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/600px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1392\" data-file-height=\"884\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Eucheuma_farming,_Philippines_(5211726476).jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Underwater <i><a href=\"/wiki/Eucheuma\" title=\"Eucheuma\">Eucheuma</a></i> farming in the <a href=\"/wiki/Philippines\" title=\"Philippines\">Philippines</a></div></div></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan,_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A seaweed farmer stands in shallow water, gathering edible seaweed that has grown on a rope\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/300px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/450px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/600px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"4640\" data-file-height=\"3093\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan,_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>A seaweed farmer in <a href=\"/wiki/Nusa_Lembongan\" title=\"Nusa Lembongan\">Nusa Lembongan</a> (Indonesia) gathers edible seaweed that has grown on a rope.</div></div></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_farming\" title=\"Seaweed farming\">Seaweed farming</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Kelp\" title=\"Kelp\">kelp</a> farming is the practice of <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">cultivating</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Harvest\" title=\"Harvest\">harvesting</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">seaweed</a>. In its simplest form, farmers gather from natural beds. Alternatively, farmers fully control the crop's <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_life_cycle\" title=\"Biological life cycle\">life cycle</a>. \n</p><p>The seven most cultivated <a href=\"/wiki/Taxa\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Taxa\">taxa</a> are <i><a href=\"/wiki/Eucheuma\" title=\"Eucheuma\">Eucheuma</a></i> spp., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Kappaphycus_alvarezii\" title=\"Kappaphycus alvarezii\">Kappaphycus alvarezii</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Gracilaria\" title=\"Gracilaria\">Gracilaria</a></i> spp., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Saccharina_japonica\" title=\"Saccharina japonica\">Saccharina japonica</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Undaria_pinnatifida\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Undaria pinnatifida\">Undaria pinnatifida</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Pyropia\" title=\"Pyropia\">Pyropia</a></i> spp., and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Sargassum_fusiforme\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sargassum fusiforme\">Sargassum fusiforme</a></i>. <i>Eucheuma</i> and <i>K. alvarezii</i> are attractive for <a href=\"/wiki/Carrageenan\" title=\"Carrageenan\">carrageenan</a> (a <a href=\"/wiki/Gelling_agent\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Gelling agent\">gelling agent</a>); <i>Gracilaria</i> is farmed for <a href=\"/wiki/Agar\" title=\"Agar\">agar</a>; the rest are farmed for food.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-86\">[86]</a></sup> Seaweeds are different from <a href=\"/wiki/Mangroves\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mangroves\">mangroves</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Seagrasses\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Seagrasses\">seagrasses</a>, as they are photosynthetic algal organisms<sup id=\"cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]</a></sup> and are non-flowering.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-86\">[86]</a></sup> \n</p><p>The largest seaweed-producing countries are China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Other notable producers include South Korea, North Korea, Japan, Malaysia, and <a href=\"/wiki/Zanzibar\" title=\"Zanzibar\">Zanzibar</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Tanzania\" title=\"Tanzania\">Tanzania</a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann-88\">[88]</a></sup> Seaweed farming has frequently been developed to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_ask_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_ask-89\">[89]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The <a href=\"/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization\" title=\"Food and Agriculture Organization\">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO), reported that world production in 2019 was over 35 million tonnes. North America produced some 23,000 tonnes of wet seaweed. Alaska, Maine, France, and Norway each more than doubled their seaweed production since 2018<i>.</i> As of 2019, seaweed represented 30% of marine <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">aquaculture</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:4_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:4-90\">[90]</a></sup> \n</p>\nSeaweed farming is a <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal\" title=\"Carbon dioxide removal\">carbon negative</a> crop, with a high potential for <a href=\"/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation\" title=\"Climate change mitigation\">climate change mitigation</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:0_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:0-91\">[91]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:1_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:1-92\">[92]</a></sup> The IPCC <a href=\"/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate\" title=\"Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate\">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a> recommends \"further research attention\" as a mitigation tactic.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:2_93-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:2-93\">[93]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"World Wildlife Fund\">World Wildlife Fund</a>, Oceans 2050, and <a href=\"/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy\" title=\"The Nature Conservancy\">The Nature Conservancy</a> publicly support expanded seaweed cultivation.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:4_90-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:4-90\">[90]</a></sup></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bioreactors\">Bioreactors</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=20\" title=\"Edit section: Bioreactors\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"excerpt-block\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref\">This section is an excerpt from <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_bioreactor\" title=\"Algae bioreactor\">Algae bioreactor</a>.<span class=\"mw-editsection-like plainlinks\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae_bioreactor&action=edit\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></div><div class=\"excerpt\">\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/280px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"280\" height=\"184\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/420px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/560px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1827\" data-file-height=\"1198\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>A close up of microalgae \u2013 <i>Pavlova</i> sp.</div></div></div>\nAn <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_bioreactor\" title=\"Algae bioreactor\">algae bioreactor</a> is used for cultivating <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">micro</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">macro algae</a>. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of <a href=\"/wiki/Biomass\" title=\"Biomass\">biomass</a> production (as in a <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_cultivator\" title=\"Seaweed cultivator\">seaweed cultivator</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Wastewater_treatment\" title=\"Wastewater treatment\">wastewater treatment</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_fixation\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Carbon fixation\">CO<sub>2</sub> fixation</a>, or aquarium/pond filtration in the form of an <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_scrubber\" title=\"Algae scrubber\">algae scrubber</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]</a></sup> Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into two categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors, also commonly called <a href=\"/wiki/Photobioreactor\" title=\"Photobioreactor\">photobioreactors</a>, are isolated to varying extents from the atmosphere. Specifically, algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as <a href=\"/wiki/Biodiesel\" title=\"Biodiesel\">biodiesel</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Bioethanol\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bioethanol\">bioethanol</a>, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as <a href=\"/wiki/NOx\" title=\"NOx\">NO<sub>x</sub></a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_dioxide\" title=\"Carbon dioxide\">CO<sub>2</sub></a> in flue gases of power plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthese\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Photosynthese\">photosynthetic</a> reaction, which is performed by the <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophyll</a>-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible for the algae. The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material.</div></div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=21\" title=\"Edit section: Uses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Algae_Harvester.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/220px-Algae_Harvester.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/330px-Algae_Harvester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/440px-Algae_Harvester.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"500\" data-file-height=\"375\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Algae_Harvester.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Harvesting algae</div></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Agar\">Agar</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=22\" title=\"Edit section: Agar\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Agar\" title=\"Agar\">Agar</a>, a <a href=\"/wiki/Gelatin\" title=\"Gelatin\">gelatinous</a> substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]</a></sup> It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alginates\">Alginates</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=23\" title=\"Edit section: Alginates\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Alginic_acid\" title=\"Alginic acid\">Alginic acid</a>, or alginate, is extracted from <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">brown algae</a>. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of <a href=\"/wiki/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\">biotechnology</a> as a <a href=\"/wiki/Biocompatibility\" title=\"Biocompatibility\">biocompatible medium</a> for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_cuisine\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Molecular cuisine\">Molecular cuisine</a> is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours.\n</p><p>Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of <i><a href=\"/wiki/Macrocystis\" title=\"Macrocystis\">Macrocystis</a></i> are harvested annually in <a href=\"/wiki/New_Mexico\" title=\"New Mexico\">New Mexico</a> for <a href=\"/wiki/Alginic_acid\" title=\"Alginic acid\">alginate</a> extraction and <a href=\"/wiki/Abalone\" title=\"Abalone\">abalone</a> feed.<sup id=\"cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Energy_source\">Energy source</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=24\" title=\"Edit section: Energy source\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_fuel\" title=\"Algae fuel\">Algae fuel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_hydrogen_production\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Biological hydrogen production\">Biological hydrogen production</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biohydrogen\" title=\"Biohydrogen\">Biohydrogen</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biodiesel\" title=\"Biodiesel\">Biodiesel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Ethanol_fuel\" title=\"Ethanol fuel\">Ethanol fuel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Butanol_fuel\" title=\"Butanol fuel\">Butanol fuel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Vegetable_oil\" title=\"Vegetable oil\">Vegetable oil</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biogas\" title=\"Biogas\">Biogas</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Hydrothermal_Liquefaction\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hydrothermal Liquefaction\">Hydrothermal Liquefaction</a></div>\n<p>To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise,<sup id=\"cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]</a></sup> directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.<sup id=\"cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fertilizer\">Fertilizer</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=25\" title=\"Edit section: Fertilizer\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_fertiliser\" title=\"Seaweed fertiliser\">Seaweed fertiliser</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Inisheer_landscape.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/220px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/330px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/440px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1536\" data-file-height=\"1024\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Inisheer_landscape.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Seaweed-fertilized gardens on <a href=\"/wiki/Inisheer\" title=\"Inisheer\">Inisheer</a></div></div></div>\n<p>For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; <a href=\"/wiki/George_Owen_of_Henllys\" title=\"George Owen of Henllys\">George Owen of Henllys</a> writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in <a href=\"/wiki/South_Wales\" title=\"South Wales\">South Wales</a>:<sup id=\"cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r996844942\">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.</p></blockquote>\n<p>Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as <a href=\"/wiki/Fertilizer\" title=\"Fertilizer\">fertilizers</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Soil_conditioner\" title=\"Soil conditioner\">soil conditioners</a>, and livestock feed.<sup id=\"cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]</a></sup> Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. <a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">Algaculture</a> on a large scale is an important type of <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">aquaculture</a> in some places. <a href=\"/wiki/Maerl\" title=\"Maerl\">Maerl</a> is commonly used as a soil conditioner.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Nutrition\">Nutrition</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=26\" title=\"Edit section: Nutrition\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Edible_seaweed\" title=\"Edible seaweed\">Edible seaweed</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_powder\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Algae powder\">Algae powder</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:202px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Dulse.JPG\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Dulse.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" data-file-width=\"200\" data-file-height=\"200\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Dulse.JPG\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Dulse, a type of edible seaweed</div></div></div>\n<p>Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as <a href=\"/wiki/Superfood\" title=\"Superfood\">superfoods</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]</a></sup> They provide many vitamins including: A, <a href=\"/wiki/Thiamine\" title=\"Thiamine\">B<sub>1</sub></a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Riboflavin\" title=\"Riboflavin\">B<sub>2</sub></a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Vitamin_B6\" title=\"Vitamin B6\">B<sub>6</sub></a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Niacin (nutrient)\">niacin</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Vitamin_C\" title=\"Vitamin C\">C</a>, and are rich in <a href=\"/wiki/Iodine\" title=\"Iodine\">iodine</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Potassium\" title=\"Potassium\">potassium</a>, iron, <a href=\"/wiki/Magnesium\" title=\"Magnesium\">magnesium</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Calcium\" title=\"Calcium\">calcium</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]</a></sup> In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Spirulina_(dietary_supplement)\" title=\"Spirulina (dietary supplement)\">spirulina</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[105]</a></sup> <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorella\" title=\"Chlorella\">Chlorella</a></i> and the vitamin-C supplement from <i><a href=\"/wiki/Dunaliella\" title=\"Dunaliella\">Dunaliella</a></i>, high in <a href=\"/wiki/Beta-carotene\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Beta-carotene\">beta-carotene</a>.\n</p><p>Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including <i><a href=\"/wiki/Fat_choy_(vegetable)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fat choy (vegetable)\">fat choy</a></i>, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Nori\" title=\"Nori\">nori</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Aonori\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Aonori\">aonori</a></i>;<sup id=\"cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]</a></sup> Ireland, <a href=\"/wiki/Dulse\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dulse\">dulse</a>; <a href=\"/wiki/Chile\" title=\"Chile\">Chile</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Cochayuyo\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cochayuyo\">cochayuyo</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">[107]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Laver_(seaweed)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Laver (seaweed)\">Laver</a> is used to make laver bread in <a href=\"/wiki/Wales\" title=\"Wales\">Wales</a>, where it is known as <span title=\"Welsh-language text\"><i lang=\"cy\">bara lawr</i></span>; in <a href=\"/wiki/Korea\" title=\"Korea\">Korea</a>, <span title=\"Korean-language text\"><i lang=\"ko-Latn\"><a href=\"/wiki/Gim_(Korean_food)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Gim (Korean food)\">gim</a></i></span>. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to <a href=\"/wiki/British_Columbia\" title=\"British Columbia\">British Columbia</a>, in Hawaii and by the <a href=\"/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people\" title=\"M\u0101ori people\">M\u0101ori</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/New_Zealand\" title=\"New Zealand\">New Zealand</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Sea_lettuce\" title=\"Sea lettuce\">Sea lettuce</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Alaria_esculenta\" title=\"Alaria esculenta\">badderlocks</a> are salad ingredients in <a href=\"/wiki/Scotland\" title=\"Scotland\">Scotland</a>, Ireland, <a href=\"/wiki/Greenland\" title=\"Greenland\">Greenland</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Iceland\" title=\"Iceland\">Iceland</a>. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.<sup id=\"cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-110\">[110]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine:\n</p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorella\" title=\"Chlorella\">Chlorella</a></i>: This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthetic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Photosynthetic\">photosynthetic</a> pigments in its <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplast</a>. It is high in <a href=\"/wiki/Iron\" title=\"Iron\">iron</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Zinc\" title=\"Zinc\">zinc</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Magnesium\" title=\"Magnesium\">magnesium</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Vitamin_B2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vitamin B2\">vitamin B2</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid\" title=\"Omega-3 fatty acid\">Omega-3 fatty acids</a>.</li></ul>\n<p>Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential <a href=\"/wiki/Amino_acid\" title=\"Amino acid\">amino acids</a> the body does not produce on its own<sup id=\"cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Spirulina_(genus)\" title=\"Spirulina (genus)\">Spirulina</a></i>: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a <a href=\"/wiki/Prokaryote\" title=\"Prokaryote\">prokaryote</a>, incorrectly referred to as a \"blue-green alga\"), contains 10% more <a href=\"/wiki/Protein\" title=\"Protein\">protein</a> than <i>Chlorella</i> as well as more <a href=\"/wiki/Thiamine\" title=\"Thiamine\">thiamine</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Copper\" title=\"Copper\">copper</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<p>The oils from some algae have high levels of <a href=\"/wiki/Unsaturated_fatty_acid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Unsaturated fatty acid\">unsaturated fatty acids</a>. For example, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Parietochloris_incisa\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parietochloris incisa\">Parietochloris incisa</a></i> is very high in <a href=\"/wiki/Arachidonic_acid\" title=\"Arachidonic acid\">arachidonic acid</a>, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.<sup id=\"cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[113]</a></sup> Some varieties of algae favored by <a href=\"/wiki/Vegetarianism\" title=\"Vegetarianism\">vegetarianism</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Veganism\" title=\"Veganism\">veganism</a> contain the long-chain, essential <a href=\"/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid\" title=\"Omega-3 fatty acid\">omega-3 fatty acids</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid\" title=\"Docosahexaenoic acid\">docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA) and <a href=\"/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid\" title=\"Eicosapentaenoic acid\">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as <a href=\"/wiki/Copepod\" title=\"Copepod\">copepods</a> and are passed up the food chain.<sup id=\"cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[114]</a></sup> Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as <a href=\"/wiki/Flaxseed_oil\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Flaxseed oil\">flaxseed oil</a>, which only contains the short-chain <a href=\"/wiki/Alpha-linolenic_acid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Alpha-linolenic acid\">alpha-linolenic acid</a> (ALA).\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pollution_control\">Pollution control</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=27\" title=\"Edit section: Pollution control\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<ul><li>Sewage can be treated with algae,<sup id=\"cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]</a></sup> reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed.</li>\n<li>Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer.</li>\n<li>Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_scrubber\" title=\"Algae scrubber\">algae scrubber</a>, also known as an algae turf scrubber.<sup id=\"cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">[118]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-119\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-119\">[119]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Agricultural_Research_Service\" title=\"Agricultural Research Service\">Agricultural Research Service</a> scientists found that 60\u201390% of nitrogen runoff and 70\u2013100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from <a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Manure_effluents&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Manure effluents (page does not exist)\">manure effluents</a> using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an <a href=\"/wiki/Algal_turf_scrubber\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Algal turf scrubber\">algal turf scrubber</a> (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.<sup id=\"cite_ref-120\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-120\">[120]</a></sup> Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Polymers\">Polymers</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=28\" title=\"Edit section: Polymers\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene.<sup id=\"cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]</a></sup> Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops<sup id=\"cite_ref-122\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-122\">[122]</a></sup> and in surf boards.<sup id=\"cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-123\">[123]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bioremediation\">Bioremediation</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=29\" title=\"Edit section: Bioremediation\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The alga <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Stichococcus_bacillaris&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Stichococcus bacillaris (page does not exist)\">Stichococcus bacillaris</a></i> has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; <a href=\"/wiki/Biodegradation\" title=\"Biodegradation\">biodegrading</a> the synthetic substance.<sup id=\"cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pigments\">Pigments</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=30\" title=\"Edit section: Pigments\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The natural <a href=\"/wiki/Pigment\" title=\"Pigment\">pigments</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Carotenoid\" title=\"Carotenoid\">carotenoids</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophylls</a>) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical <a href=\"/wiki/Dye\" title=\"Dye\">dyes</a> and coloring agents.<sup id=\"cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]</a></sup>\nThe presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly <a href=\"/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography\" title=\"High-performance liquid chromatography\">high-performance liquid chromatography</a>, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.<sup id=\"cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[127]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stabilizing_substances\">Stabilizing substances</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=31\" title=\"Edit section: Stabilizing substances\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\"/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Carrageenan\" title=\"Carrageenan\">Carrageenan</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chondrus_crispus\" title=\"Chondrus crispus\">Chondrus crispus</a></div>\n<p>Carrageenan, from the red alga <i>Chondrus crispus</i>, is used as a stabilizer in milk products.\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_images\">Additional images</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=32\" title=\"Edit section: Additional images\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<ul class=\"gallery mw-gallery-traditional\">\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 235px\"><div style=\"width: 235px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 230px;\"><div style=\"margin:15px auto;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Algae_bladder_4290.jpg\" class=\"image\" title=\"Algae bladder\"><img alt=\"Algae bladder\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/200px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/300px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/400px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"2272\" data-file-height=\"1704\" /></a></div></div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\n<p>Algae bladder\n</p>\n\t\t\t</div>\n\t\t</div></li>\n</ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=33\" title=\"Edit section: See also\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1132942124\">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:solid #aaa 1px;padding:0.1em;background:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portalbox portalborder portalright\">\n<li class=\"portalbox-entry\"><span class=\"portalbox-image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/28px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"28\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/43px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/57px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"202\" data-file-height=\"199\" /></span><span class=\"portalbox-link\"><a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Algae\" title=\"Portal:Algae\">Algae portal</a></span></li></ul>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/AlgaeBase\" title=\"AlgaeBase\">AlgaeBase</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/AlgaePARC\" title=\"AlgaePARC\">AlgaePARC</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eutrophication\" title=\"Eutrophication\">Eutrophication</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Iron_fertilization\" title=\"Iron fertilization\">Iron fertilization</a></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Marimo\" title=\"Marimo\">Marimo</a></i> algae</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbiofuels\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Microbiofuels\">Microbiofuels</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Microphyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Microphyte\">Microphyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Photobioreactor\" title=\"Photobioreactor\">Photobioreactor</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycotechnology\" title=\"Phycotechnology\">Phycotechnology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant#Algae\" title=\"Plant\">Plant</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Toxoid\" title=\"Toxoid\">Toxoid</a> \u2013 anatoxin</li></ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=34\" title=\"Edit section: References\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1011085734\">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1133582631\">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:\"\\\"\"\"\\\"\"\"'\"\"'\"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg\")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg\")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg\")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url(\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg\")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id=\"CITEREFButterfield2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Butterfield, N. J. (2000). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386\">\"<i>Bangiomorpha pubescens</i> n. gen., n. sp.: Implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes\"</a>. <i><a href=\"/wiki/Paleobiology_(journal)\" title=\"Paleobiology (journal)\">Paleobiology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (3): 386\u2013404. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2\">10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8373\">0094-8373</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36648568\">36648568</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20070307035241/http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386\">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2007.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Bangiomorpha+pubescens+n.+gen.%2C+n.+sp.%3A+Implications+for+the+evolution+of+sex%2C+multicellularity%2C+and+the+Mesoproterozoic%2FNeoproterozoic+radiation+of+eukaryotes&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=386-404&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36648568%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0094-8373&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Butterfield&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleobiol.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F26%2F3%2F386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gibson-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gibson_2-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFT.M._Gibson2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">T.M. Gibson (2018). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/46/2/135/524864/Precise-age-of-Bangiomorpha-pubescens-dates-the\">\"Precise age of Bangiomorpha pubescens dates the origin of eukaryotic photosynthesis\"</a>. <i><a href=\"/wiki/Geology_(journal)\" title=\"Geology (journal)\">Geology</a></i>. <b>46</b> (2): 135\u2013138. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Geo....46..135G\">2018Geo....46..135G</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG39829.1\">10.1130/G39829.1</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Precise+age+of+Bangiomorpha+pubescens+dates+the+origin+of+eukaryotic+photosynthesis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135-138&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG39829.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Geo....46..135G&rft.au=T.M.+Gibson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fgsa%2Fgeology%2Farticle%2F46%2F2%2F135%2F524864%2FPrecise-age-of-Bangiomorpha-pubescens-dates-the&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/algae\">https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/algae</a></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLee2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lee, R. E. (2008). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/phycology00leer_0\"><i>Phycology</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521367448\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780521367448\"><bdi>9780521367448</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phycology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780521367448&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphycology00leer_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IntroBot-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-IntroBot_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-IntroBot_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFNabors2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nabors, Murray W. (2004). <i>Introduction to Botany</i>. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4416-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4416-5\"><bdi>978-0-8053-4416-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Botany&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-4416-5&rft.aulast=Nabors&rft.aufirst=Murray+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAllaby1992\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Allaby, M., ed. (1992). \"Algae\". <i>The Concise Dictionary of Botany</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Algae&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Dictionary+of+Botany&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-keeling-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-keeling_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-keeling_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-keeling_7-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKeeling2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Keeling, Patrick J. (2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1481\">\"Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts\"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>91</b> (10): 1481\u20131493. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1481\">10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21652304\">21652304</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Diversity+and+evolutionary+history+of+plastids+and+their+hosts&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1481-1493&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1481&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21652304&rft.aulast=Keeling&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.10.1481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPalmerSoltisChase2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Palmer, J. D.; Soltis, D. E.; Chase, M. W. (2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437\">\"The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view\"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>91</b> (10): 1437\u20131445. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437\">10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21652302\">21652302</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+plant+tree+of+life%3A+an+overview+and+some+points+of+view&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1437-1445&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21652302&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Chase%2C+M.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.10.1437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; Department of Botany. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm\">\"Algae Research\"</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20100702180840/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2Fintroduction.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Pringsheim, E. G. 1963. <i>Farblose Algen. Ein beitrag zur Evolutionsforschung</i>. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. 471 pp., <a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae#Pringsheim_(1963)\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"species:Algae\">species:Algae#Pringsheim (1963)</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFTartarBouciasBecnelAdams2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tartar, A.; Boucias, D. G.; Becnel, J. J.; Adams, B. J. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02559-0\">\"Comparison of plastid 16S rRNA (rrn 16) genes from Helicosporidium spp.: Evidence supporting the reclassification of Helicosporidia as green algae (Chlorophyta)\"</a>. <i>International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</i>. <b>53</b> (Pt 6): 1719\u20131723. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02559-0\">10.1099/ijs.0.02559-0</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14657099\">14657099</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Systematic+and+Evolutionary+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+plastid+16S+rRNA+%28rrn+16%29+genes+from+Helicosporidium+spp.%3A+Evidence+supporting+the+reclassification+of+Helicosporidia+as+green+algae+%28Chlorophyta%29&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=Pt+6&rft.pages=1719-1723&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fijs.0.02559-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14657099&rft.aulast=Tartar&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Boucias%2C+D.+G.&rft.au=Becnel%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Adams%2C+B.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252Fijs.0.02559-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFigueroa\u2010MartinezNedelcuSmithReyes\u2010Prieto2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Figueroa\u2010Martinez, F.; Nedelcu, A. M.; Smith, D. R.; Reyes\u2010Prieto, A. (2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5024002\">\"When the lights go out: the evolutionary fate of free\u2010living colorless green algae\"</a>. <i>New Phytologist</i>. <b>206</b> (3): 972\u2013982. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.13279\">10.1111/nph.13279</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5024002\">5024002</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26042246\">26042246</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=When+the+lights+go+out%3A+the+evolutionary+fate+of+free%E2%80%90living+colorless+green+algae&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=972-982&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5024002%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26042246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fnph.13279&rft.aulast=Figueroa%E2%80%90Martinez&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Nedelcu%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Reyes%E2%80%90Prieto%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5024002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBengtsonBelivanovaRasmussenWhitehouse2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bengtson, S.; Belivanova, V.; Rasmussen, B.; Whitehouse, M. (2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2683128\">\"The controversial 'Cambrian' fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>106</b> (19): 7729\u20137734. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..106.7729B\">2009PNAS..106.7729B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0812460106\">10.1073/pnas.0812460106</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2683128\">2683128</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19416859\">19416859</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=The+controversial+%27Cambrian%27+fossils+of+the+Vindhyan+are+real+but+more+than+a+billion+years+older&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=7729-7734&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2683128%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19416859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0812460106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..106.7729B&rft.aulast=Bengtson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Belivanova%2C+V.&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+B.&rft.au=Whitehouse%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2683128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPaulChandra_ShekharaiahKushwahaSapre2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Paul, Vishal; Chandra Shekharaiah, P. S.; Kushwaha, Shivbachan; Sapre, Ajit; Dasgupta, Santanu; Sanyal, Debanjan (2020). Deb, Dipankar; Dixit, Ambesh; Chandra, Laltu (eds.). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_23\">\"Role of Algae in CO<sub>2</sub> Sequestration Addressing Climate Change: A Review\"</a>. <i>Renewable Energy and Climate Change</i>. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies. Singapore: Springer. <b>161</b>: 257\u2013265. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-32-9578-0_23\">10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_23</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-329-578-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-981-329-578-0\"><bdi>978-981-329-578-0</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202902934\">202902934</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+Energy+and+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Role+of+Algae+in+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+Sequestration+Addressing+Climate+Change%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=161&rft.pages=257-265&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202902934%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-32-9578-0_23&rft.isbn=978-981-329-578-0&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Vishal&rft.au=Chandra+Shekharaiah%2C+P.+S.&rft.au=Kushwaha%2C+Shivbachan&rft.au=Sapre%2C+Ajit&rft.au=Dasgupta%2C+Santanu&rft.au=Sanyal%2C+Debanjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-981-32-9578-0_23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\">\"alga, algae\". <i>Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged with Seven Language Dictionary</i>. Vol. 1. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc. 1986.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=alga%2C+algae&rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Third+New+International+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language+Unabridged+with+Seven+Language+Dictionary&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc&rft.date=1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPartridge1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Partridge, Eric (1983). \"algae\". <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/originsshortetym0000part\"><i>Origins</i></a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780517414255\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780517414255\"><bdi>9780517414255</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=algae&rft.btitle=Origins&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780517414255&rft.aulast=Partridge&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsshortetym0000part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLewisShort1879\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D37%3Aentry%3Dalga\">\"Alga\"</a>. <i>A Latin Dictionary</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alga&rft.btitle=A+Latin+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Charlton+T.&rft.au=Short%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0059%253Aalphabetic%2Bletter%253DA%253Aentry%2Bgroup%253D37%253Aentry%253Dalga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCheyneBlack1902\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cheyne, Thomas Kelly; Black, John Sutherland (1902). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=GccVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3525\"><i>Encyclop\u00e6dia biblica: A critical dictionary of the literary, political and religious history, the arch\u00e6ology, geography, and natural history of the Bible</i></a>. Macmillan Company. p. 3525.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+biblica%3A+A+critical+dictionary+of+the+literary%2C+political+and+religious+history%2C+the+arch%C3%A6ology%2C+geography%2C+and+natural+history+of+the+Bible&rft.pages=3525&rft.pub=Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Cheyne&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Kelly&rft.au=Black%2C+John+Sutherland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGccVAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA3525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFB._R._Vashishta_Revised_by_A._K._Sinha_and_V._P._Singh1960\" class=\"citation book cs1\">B. R. Vashishta Revised by A. K. Sinha and V. P. Singh (1960). <i>Botany for degree students algae</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Botany+for+degree+students+algae&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=S.+Chand+and+Company&rft.date=1960&rft.au=B.+R.+Vashishta+Revised+by+A.+K.+Sinha+and+V.+P.+Singh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBhattacharyaMedlin1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bhattacharya, D.; <a href=\"/wiki/Linda_Medlin\" title=\"Linda Medlin\">Medlin, L.</a> (1998). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf\">\"Algal Phylogeny and the Origin of Land Plants\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Plant Physiology</i>. <b>116</b> (1): 9\u201315. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.116.1.9\">10.1104/pp.116.1.9</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1539170\">1539170</a></span>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090207051438/http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 February 2009.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.atitle=Algal+Phylogeny+and+the+Origin+of+Land+Plants&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9-15&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1539170%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.116.1.9&rft.aulast=Bhattacharya&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Medlin%2C+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plantphysiol.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F116%2F1%2F9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLososMasonSinger2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Losos, Jonathan B.; Mason, Kenneth A.; Singer, Susan R. (2007). <i>Biology</i> (8 ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-304110-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-07-304110-0\"><bdi>978-0-07-304110-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.edition=8&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-07-304110-0&rft.aulast=Losos&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+B.&rft.au=Mason%2C+Kenneth+A.&rft.au=Singer%2C+Susan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFArchibaldKeeling2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Archibald, J. M.; Keeling, P. J. (November 2002). \"Recycled plastids: A 'green movement' in eukaryotic evolution\". <i>Trends in Genetics</i>. <b>18</b> (11): 577\u2013584. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-9525%2802%2902777-4\">10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02777-4</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12414188\">12414188</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=Recycled+plastids%3A+A+%27green+movement%27+in+eukaryotic+evolution&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=577-584&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-9525%2802%2902777-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12414188&rft.aulast=Archibald&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft.au=Keeling%2C+P.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFJansonGraneli2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Janson, Sven; Graneli, Edna (September 2003). \"Genetic analysis of the psbA gene from single cells indicates a cryptomonad origin of the plastid in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae)\". <i>Phycologia</i>. <b>42</b> (5): 473\u2013477. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2216%2Fi0031-8884-42-5-473.1\">10.2216/i0031-8884-42-5-473.1</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8884\">0031-8884</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86730888\">86730888</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phycologia&rft.atitle=Genetic+analysis+of+the+psbA+gene+from+single+cells+indicates+a+cryptomonad+origin+of+the+plastid+in+Dinophysis+%28Dinophyceae%29&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=473-477&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86730888%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0031-8884&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2216%2Fi0031-8884-42-5-473.1&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft.au=Graneli%2C+Edna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWegener_ParfreyBarberoLasserDunthorn2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Laura_Wegener_Parfrey\" title=\"Laura Wegener Parfrey\">Wegener Parfrey, Laura</a>; Barbero, Erika; Lasser, Elyse; Dunthorn, Micah; Bhattacharya, Debashish; <a href=\"/wiki/David_J._Patterson\" title=\"David J. Patterson\">Patterson, David J.</a>; <a href=\"/wiki/Laura_A._Katz\" title=\"Laura A. Katz\">Katz, Laura A</a> (December 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1713255\">\"Evaluating Support for the Current Classification of Eukaryotic Diversity\"</a>. <i>PLOS Genetics</i>. <b>2</b> (12): e220. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.0020220\">10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1713255\">1713255</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17194223\">17194223</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Genetics&rft.atitle=Evaluating+Support+for+the+Current+Classification+of+Eukaryotic+Diversity&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e220&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1713255%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17194223&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.0020220&rft.aulast=Wegener+Parfrey&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Barbero%2C+Erika&rft.au=Lasser%2C+Elyse&rft.au=Dunthorn%2C+Micah&rft.au=Bhattacharya%2C+Debashish&rft.au=Patterson%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Katz%2C+Laura+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1713255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBurkiShalchian-TabriziMingeSkj\u00e6veland2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Burki, F.; Shalchian-Tabrizi, K.; Minge, M.; Skj\u00e6veland, \u00c5.; Nikolaev, S. I.; et al. (2007). Butler, Geraldine (ed.). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1949142\">\"Phylogenomics Reshuffles the Eukaryotic Supergroups\"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>2</b> (8): e790. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PLoSO...2..790B\">2007PLoSO...2..790B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000790\">10.1371/journal.pone.0000790</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1949142\">1949142</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17726520\">17726520</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Phylogenomics+Reshuffles+the+Eukaryotic+Supergroups&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e790&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1949142%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17726520&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000790&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PLoSO...2..790B&rft.aulast=Burki&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Shalchian-Tabrizi%2C+K.&rft.au=Minge%2C+M.&rft.au=Skj%C3%A6veland%2C+%C3%85.&rft.au=Nikolaev%2C+S.+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1949142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLinn\u00e6us1753\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Linn\u00e6us, Caroli (1753). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/573/mode/1up\"><i>Species Plantarum</i></a>. Vol. 2. Impensis Laurentii Salvii. p. 1131.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Plantarum&rft.pages=1131&rft.pub=Impensis+Laurentii+Salvii&rft.date=1753&rft.aulast=Linn%C3%A6us&rft.aufirst=Caroli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F13830%23page%2F573%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSharma1986\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sharma, O. P. (1 January 1986). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&pg=PA22\"><i>Textbook of Algae</i></a>. p. 22. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780074519288\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780074519288\"><bdi>9780074519288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Algae&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1986-01-01&rft.isbn=9780074519288&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=O.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhOa74Hm4zDIC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGmelin1768\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gmelin, S. G. (1768). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=YUAAAAAAQAAJ&q=%22Historia+Fucorum%22\"><i>Historia Fucorum</i></a>. St. Petersburg: Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Fucorum&rft.place=St.+Petersburg&rft.pub=Ex+typographia+Academiae+scientiarum&rft.date=1768&rft.aulast=Gmelin&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYUAAAAAAQAAJ%26q%3D%2522Historia%2BFucorum%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSilvaBassonMoe1996\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Silva, P. C.; Basson, P. W.; Moe, R. L. (1996). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=vuWEemVY8WEC&q=%22Historia+Fucorum%22+binomial+nomenclature&pg=PA2\"><i>Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean</i></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520915817\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780520915817\"><bdi>9780520915817</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catalogue+of+the+Benthic+Marine+Algae+of+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780520915817&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=P.+C.&rft.au=Basson%2C+P.+W.&rft.au=Moe%2C+R.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvuWEemVY8WEC%26q%3D%2522Historia%2BFucorum%2522%2Bbinomial%2Bnomenclature%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Medlin_et_al-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMedlinKooistraPotterSaunders1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Medlin, Linda K.; Kooistra, Wiebe H. C. F.; Potter, Daniel; Saunders, Gary W.; Anderson, Robert A. (1997). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf\">\"Phylogenetic relationships of the 'golden algae' (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Plant Systematics and Evolution</i>: 188. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20131005084158/http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 October 2013.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Systematics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+relationships+of+the+%27golden+algae%27+%28haptophytes%2C+heterokont+chromophytes%29+and+their+plastids&rft.pages=188&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Medlin&rft.aufirst=Linda+K.&rft.au=Kooistra%2C+Wiebe+H.+C.+F.&rft.au=Potter%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Saunders%2C+Gary+W.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Robert+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepic.awi.de%2F2100%2F1%2FMed1997c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFDixon1973\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dixon, P. S. (1973). <i>Biology of the Rhodophyta</i>. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. p. 232. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-05-002485-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-05-002485-0\"><bdi>978-0-05-002485-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+the+Rhodophyta&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Oliver+%26+Boyd&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-05-002485-0&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=P.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHarvey1836\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Harvey, D. (1836). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://img.algaebase.org/pdf/562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F/18893.pdf\">\"Algae\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. In Mackay, J. T. (ed.). <i><span></span></i>Flora hibernica<i> comprising the Flowering Plants Ferns Characeae Musci Hepaticae Lichenes and Algae of Ireland arranged according to the natural system with a synopsis of the genera according to the Linnaean system</i>. pp. 157\u2013254. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://img.algaebase.org/pdf/562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F/18893.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Algae&rft.btitle=Flora+hibernica+comprising+the+Flowering+Plants+Ferns+Characeae+Musci+Hepaticae+Lichenes+and+Algae+of+Ireland+arranged+according+to+the+natural+system+with+a+synopsis+of+the+genera+according+to+the+Linnaean+system&rft.pages=157-254&rft.date=1836&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimg.algaebase.org%2Fpdf%2F562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F%2F18893.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Braun, A. <i><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057#/summary\">Algarum unicellularium genera nova et minus cognita, praemissis observationibus de algis unicellularibus in genere (New and less known genera of unicellular algae, preceded by observations respecting unicellular algae in general)</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160420033958/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057\">Archived</a> 20 April 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>.</i> Lipsiae, Apud W. Engelmann, 1855. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science</i>, 1857, vol. 5, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html\">(17), 13\u201316</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130906/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html\">(18), 90\u201396</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305133158/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 5 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html\">(19), 143\u2013149</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113651/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Siebold, C. Th. v. \"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155#page/5/mode/1up\">Ueber einzellige Pflanzen und Thiere (On unicellular plants and animals)</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20141126005532/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155\">Archived</a> 26 November 2014 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>\". In: Siebold, C. Th. v. & K\u00f6lliker, A. (1849). <i>Zeitschrift f\u00fcr wissenschaftliche Zoologie</i>, Bd. 1, p. 270. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science</i>, 1853, vol. 1, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html\">(2), 111\u2013121</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114623/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html\">(3), 195\u2013206</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115243/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWilliamsKeeling2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Williams, B. A.; Keeling, P. J. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=_fAQGEJobT0C&pg=PA46\">\"Cryptic organelles in parasitic protists and fungi\"</a>. In Littlewood, D. T. J. (ed.). <i>The Evolution of Parasitism</i>. London: Elsevier Academic Press. p. 46. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-031754-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-031754-7\"><bdi>978-0-12-031754-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cryptic+organelles+in+parasitic+protists+and+fungi&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Parasitism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Elsevier+Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-031754-7&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=B.+A.&rft.au=Keeling%2C+P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_fAQGEJobT0C%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981). pp. 398\u2013400, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRound1984\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Round, F. E. (8 March 1984). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA398\"><i>The Ecology of Algae</i></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521269063\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780521269063\"><bdi>9780521269063</bdi></a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Algae&rft.date=1984-03-08&rft.isbn=9780521269063&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRm08AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFNoble2003\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Noble, Ivan (18 September 2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm\">\"When plants conquered land\"</a>. BBC. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20061111170428/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm\">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2006.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=When+plants+conquered+land&rft.date=2003-09-18&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fsci%2Ftech%2F3117034.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWellmanOsterloffMohiuddin2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wellman, C. H.; Osterloff, P. L.; Mohiuddin, U. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/106/\">\"Fragments of the earliest land plants\"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>425</b> (6955): 282\u2013285. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.425..282W\">2003Natur.425..282W</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01884\">10.1038/nature01884</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13679913\">13679913</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4383813\">4383813</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194441/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/106/\">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2017.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Fragments+of+the+earliest+land+plants&rft.volume=425&rft.issue=6955&rft.pages=282-285&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01884&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4383813%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13679913&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.425..282W&rft.aulast=Wellman&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rft.au=Osterloff%2C+P.+L.&rft.au=Mohiuddin%2C+U.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F106%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Xiao2004-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFXiaoKnollYuanPueschel2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Xiao, S.; Knoll, A. H.; Yuan, X.; Pueschel, C. M. (2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.2.214\">\"Phosphatized multicellular algae in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation, China, and the early evolution of florideophyte red algae\"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>91</b> (2): 214\u2013227. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.2.214\">10.3732/ajb.91.2.214</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21653378\">21653378</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Phosphatized+multicellular+algae+in+the+Neoproterozoic+Doushantuo+Formation%2C+China%2C+and+the+early+evolution+of+florideophyte+red+algae&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=214-227&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.2.214&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21653378&rft.aulast=Xiao&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Knoll%2C+A.+H.&rft.au=Yuan%2C+X.&rft.au=Pueschel%2C+C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.2.214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWaggoner1994\u20132008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Waggoner, Ben (1994\u20132008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081221171218/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html\">\"Introduction to the Phaeophyta: Kelps and brown \"Algae\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"></span>\"</a>. University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP). Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html\">the original</a> on 21 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Phaeophyta%3A+Kelps+and+brown+%22Algae%22&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Palaeontology+%28UCMP%29&rft.date=1994%2F2008&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fchromista%2Fphaeophyta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFThomas2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Thomas, D. N. (2002). <i>Seaweeds</i>. London: The Natural History Museum. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09175-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09175-0\"><bdi>978-0-565-09175-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Natural+History+Museum&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-565-09175-0&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=D.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWaggoner1994\u20132008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Waggoner, Ben (1994\u20132008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081218211021/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html\">\"Introduction to the Rhodophyta, the red 'algae'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"></span>\"</a>. University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP). Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html\">the original</a> on 18 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Rhodophyta%2C+the+red+%27algae%27&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Palaeontology+%28UCMP%29&rft.date=1994%2F2008&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fprotista%2Frhodophyta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20070213103838/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html\">\"Introduction to the Green Algae\"</a>. <i>berkeley.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html\">the original</a> on 13 February 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=berkeley.edu&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Green+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fgreenalgae%2Fgreenalgae.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFConnellFosterAiroldi2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Connell, Sean; Foster, M.S.; Airoldi, Laura (9 January 2014). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285992380\">\"What are algal turfs? Towards a better description of turfs\"</a>. <i>Marine Ecology Progress Series</i>. <b>495</b>: 299\u2013307. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MEPS..495..299C\">2014MEPS..495..299C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps10513\">10.3354/meps10513</a></span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=What+are+algal+turfs%3F+Towards+a+better+description+of+turfs&rft.volume=495&rft.pages=299-307&rft.date=2014-01-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps10513&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MEPS..495..299C&rft.aulast=Connell&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Foster%2C+M.S.&rft.au=Airoldi%2C+Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F285992380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFTazawa2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Tazawa, Masashi (2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=iMxH0-q42PkC&pg=PA31\">\"Sixty Years Research with Characean Cells: Fascinating Material for Plant Cell Biology\"</a>. <i>Progress in Botany 72</i>. Progress in Botany. Vol. 72. Springer. pp. 5\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-13145-5_1\">10.1007/978-3-642-13145-5_1</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-13145-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-3-642-13145-5\"><bdi>978-3-642-13145-5</bdi></a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sixty+Years+Research+with+Characean+Cells%3A+Fascinating+Material+for+Plant+Cell+Biology&rft.btitle=Progress+in+Botany+72&rft.series=Progress+in+Botany&rft.pages=5-34&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-13145-5_1&rft.isbn=978-3-642-13145-5&rft.aulast=Tazawa&rft.aufirst=Masashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiMxH0-q42PkC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFTarakhovskayaMaslovShishova2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tarakhovskaya, E. R.; Maslov, Yu. I.; Shishova, M. F. (April 2007). \"Phytohormones in algae\". <i>Russian Journal of Plant Physiology</i>. <b>54</b> (2): 163\u2013170. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1134%2Fs1021443707020021\">10.1134/s1021443707020021</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27373543\">27373543</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Journal+of+Plant+Physiology&rft.atitle=Phytohormones+in+algae&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=163-170&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2Fs1021443707020021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27373543%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tarakhovskaya&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft.au=Maslov%2C+Yu.+I.&rft.au=Shishova%2C+M.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBrodoSharnoffSharnoffLaurie-Bourque2001\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen; Laurie-Bourque, Susan (2001). <i>Lichens of North America</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 8. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08249-4\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08249-4\"><bdi>978-0-300-08249-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lichens+of+North+America&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08249-4&rft.aulast=Brodo&rft.aufirst=Irwin+M.&rft.au=Sharnoff%2C+Sylvia+Duran&rft.au=Sharnoff%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Laurie-Bourque%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFPearson1995\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pearson, Lorentz C. (1995). <i>The Diversity and Evolution of Plants</i>. CRC Press. p. 221. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2483-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2483-3\"><bdi>978-0-8493-2483-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diversity+and+Evolution+of+Plants&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-2483-3&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Lorentz+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brodo et al. (2001), p. 6: \"A species of lichen collected anywhere in its range has the same lichen-forming fungus and, generally, the same photobiont. (A particular photobiont, though, may associate with scores of different lichen fungi).\"</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brodo et al. (2001), p. 8.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFTaylor1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Taylor, Dennis L. (1983). \"The coral-algal symbiosis\". In Goff, Lynda J. (ed.). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/algalsymbiosisco0000unse\"><i>Algal Symbiosis: A Continuum of Interaction Strategies</i></a></span>. CUP Archive. pp. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/algalsymbiosisco0000unse/page/19\">19</a>\u201320. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25541-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25541-7\"><bdi>978-0-521-25541-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+coral-algal+symbiosis&rft.btitle=Algal+Symbiosis%3A+A+Continuum+of+Interaction+Strategies&rft.pages=19-20&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25541-7&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Dennis+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falgalsymbiosisco0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKnight2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Knight, Susan (Fall 2001). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20070702204058/http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf\">\"Are There Sponges in Your Lake?\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lake Tides</i>. Wisconsin Lakes Partnership. <b>26</b> (4): 4\u20135. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf\">the original</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> on 2 July 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 August</span> 2007</span> – via UWSP.edu.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lake+Tides&rft.atitle=Are+There+Sponges+in+Your+Lake%3F&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=4-5&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuwsp.edu%2Fcnr%2FUWEXlakes%2Flaketides%2Fvol26-4%2Fvol26-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFrenkelVyvermanPohnert2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Frenkel, J.; Vyverman, W.; Pohnert, G. (2014). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ftpj.12496\">\"Pheromone signaling during sexual reproduction in algae\"</a>. <i>Plant J</i>. <b>79</b> (4): 632\u2013644. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ftpj.12496\">10.1111/tpj.12496</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24597605\">24597605</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+J.&rft.atitle=Pheromone+signaling+during+sexual+reproduction+in+algae&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=632-644&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Ftpj.12496&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24597605&rft.aulast=Frenkel&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Vyverman%2C+W.&rft.au=Pohnert%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Ftpj.12496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bernstein H; Byerly HC; Hopf FA; Michod RE (1985). \"Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex\". Science. 229 (4719): 1277\u201381. Bibcode:1985Sci...229.1277B. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.3898363\">10.1126/science.3898363</a>. PMID 3898363,</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFOtto2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Otto, S. P. (2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427058\">\"The evolutionary enigma of sex\"</a>. <i>Am. Nat</i>. <b>174</b> (Suppl 1): S1\u2013S14. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F599084\">10.1086/599084</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19441962\">19441962</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9250680\">9250680</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20170409111359/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427058\">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2017.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+Nat.&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+enigma+of+sex&rft.volume=174&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=S1-S14&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9250680%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19441962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F599084&rft.aulast=Otto&rft.aufirst=S.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F24427058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHeywoodMagee1976\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Heywood, P.; Magee, P. T. (1976). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC413949\">\"Meiosis in protists: Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa\"</a>. <i>Bacteriol Rev</i>. <b>40</b> (1): 190\u2013240. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.40.1.190-240.1976\">10.1128/MMBR.40.1.190-240.1976</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC413949\">413949</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/773364\">773364</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bacteriol+Rev&rft.atitle=Meiosis+in+protists%3A+Some+structural+and+physiological+aspects+of+meiosis+in+algae%2C+fungi%2C+and+protozoa&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=190-240&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC413949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F773364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.40.1.190-240.1976&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Magee%2C+P.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC413949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm\">\"Algae Herbarium\"</a>. National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081201112552/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+Herbarium&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+Department+of+Botany&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2Fherbarium.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">John (2002), p. 1.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Huisman (2000), p. 25.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Stegenga (1997).</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFClerck2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Clerck, Olivier (2005). <i>Guide to the seaweeds of KwaZulu-Natal</i>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-72619-64-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-90-72619-64-8\"><bdi>978-90-72619-64-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+the+seaweeds+of+KwaZulu-Natal&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-72619-64-8&rft.aulast=Clerck&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Abbott and Hollenberg (1976), p. 2.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hardy and Guiry (2006).</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGuiry2012\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael D.</a> (2012). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263561612\">\"How Many Species of Algae Are There?\"</a>. <i>Journal of Phycology</i>. <b>48</b> (5): 1057\u20131063. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2012.01222.x\">10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01222.x</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27011267\">27011267</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30911529\">30911529</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Phycology&rft.atitle=How+Many+Species+of+Algae+Are+There%3F&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1057-1063&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30911529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27011267&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2012.01222.x&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F263561612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Round8-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRound1981\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Round, F. E. (1981). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA398\">\"Chapter 8, Dispersal, continuity and phytogeography\"</a>. <i>The ecology of algae</i>. pp. 357\u2013361. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521269063\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780521269063\"><bdi>9780521269063</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%2C+Dispersal%2C+continuity+and+phytogeography&rft.btitle=The+ecology+of+algae&rft.pages=357-361&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780521269063&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRm08AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 362.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-67\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 357.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-68\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 371.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 366.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 176.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.space.com/40266-greenland-dark-zone-gets-darker.html\">\"Greenland Has a Mysterious 'Dark Zone' \u2014 And It's Getting Even Darker\"</a>. <i>Space.com</i>. 10 April 2018.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Greenland+Has+a+Mysterious+%27Dark+Zone%27+%E2%80%94+And+It%27s+Getting+Even+Darker&rft.date=2018-04-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F40266-greenland-dark-zone-gets-darker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://news.sky.com/story/alpine-glacier-turning-pink-due-to-algae-that-accelerates-climate-change-scientists-say-12022244\">\"Alpine glacier turning pink due to algae that accelerates climate change, scientists say\"</a>. <i>Sky News</i>. 6 July 2020.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sky+News&rft.atitle=Alpine+glacier+turning+pink+due+to+algae+that+accelerates+climate+change%2C+scientists+say&rft.date=2020-07-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.sky.com%2Fstory%2Falpine-glacier-turning-pink-due-to-algae-that-accelerates-climate-change-scientists-say-12022244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Omar2010-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Omar2010_73-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Omar2010_73-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Omar2010_73-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFOmar2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Omar, Wan Maznah Wan (December 2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819078\">\"Perspectives on the Use of Algae as Biological Indicators for Monitoring and Protecting Aquatic Environments, with Special Reference to Malaysian Freshwater Ecosystems\"</a>. <i>Trop Life Sci Res</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 51\u201367. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819078\">3819078</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24575199\">24575199</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trop+Life+Sci+Res&rft.atitle=Perspectives+on+the+Use+of+Algae+as+Biological+Indicators+for+Monitoring+and+Protecting+Aquatic+Environments%2C+with+Special+Reference+to+Malaysian+Freshwater+Ecosystems&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=51-67&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3819078%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24575199&rft.aulast=Omar&rft.aufirst=Wan+Maznah+Wan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3819078&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Necchi Jr., O. (ed.) (2016). <i>River Algae</i>. Springer, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFNecchi2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Necchi, Orlando J. R. (2 June 2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=KptPDAAAQBAJ\"><i>River Algae</i></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319319841\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9783319319841\"><bdi>9783319319841</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=River+Algae&rft.date=2016-06-02&rft.isbn=9783319319841&rft.aulast=Necchi&rft.aufirst=Orlando+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKptPDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFJohansen2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Johansen, J. R. (2012). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=SpuPKw7zZGAC&pg=PA465\">\"The Diatoms: Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences\"</a>. In Smol, J. P.; Stoermer, E. F. (eds.). <i>Diatoms of aerial habitats</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 465\u2013472. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139492621\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9781139492621\"><bdi>9781139492621</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Diatoms%3A+Applications+for+the+Environmental+and+Earth+Sciences&rft.btitle=Diatoms+of+aerial+habitats&rft.pages=465-472&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781139492621&rft.aulast=Johansen&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSpuPKw7zZGAC%26pg%3DPA465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Sharma, O. P. (1986). pp. 2\u20136, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&pg=PA2\">[1]</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Algaculture_:1-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Algaculture_:1_77-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHuesemannWilliamsEdmundsonChen2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Huesemann, M.; Williams, P.; Edmundson, Scott J.; Chen, P.; Kruk, R.; Cullinan, V.; Crowe, B.; Lundquist, T. (September 2017). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2017.06.017\">\"The laboratory environmental algae pond simulator (LEAPS) photobioreactor: Validation using outdoor pond cultures of Chlorella sorokiniana and Nannochloropsis salina\"</a>. <i>Algal Research</i>. <b>26</b>: 39\u201346. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.algal.2017.06.017\">10.1016/j.algal.2017.06.017</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2211-9264\">2211-9264</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"OSTI (identifier)\">OSTI</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1581797\">1581797</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Algal+Research&rft.atitle=The+laboratory+environmental+algae+pond+simulator+%28LEAPS%29+photobioreactor%3A+Validation+using+outdoor+pond+cultures+of+Chlorella+sorokiniana+and+Nannochloropsis+salina&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=39-46&rft.date=2017-09&rft.issn=2211-9264&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1581797%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.algal.2017.06.017&rft.aulast=Huesemann&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Williams%2C+P.&rft.au=Edmundson%2C+Scott+J.&rft.au=Chen%2C+P.&rft.au=Kruk%2C+R.&rft.au=Cullinan%2C+V.&rft.au=Crowe%2C+B.&rft.au=Lundquist%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.algal.2017.06.017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLaneDerbyshireLiBrennan2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lane, Katie; Derbyshire, Emma; Li, Weili; Brennan, Charles (January 2014). \"Bioavailability and Potential Uses of Vegetarian Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids: A Review of the Literature\". <i>Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition</i>. <b>54</b> (5): 572\u2013579. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2011.596292\">10.1080/10408398.2011.596292</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24261532\">24261532</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30307483\">30307483</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Food+Science+and+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Bioavailability+and+Potential+Uses+of+Vegetarian+Sources+of+Omega-3+Fatty+Acids%3A+A+Review+of+the+Literature&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=572-579&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30307483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24261532&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408398.2011.596292&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Derbyshire%2C+Emma&rft.au=Li%2C+Weili&rft.au=Brennan%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWinwood2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Winwood, R.J. (2013). \"Algal oil as a source of omega-3 fatty acids\". <i>Food Enrichment with Omega-3 Fatty Acids</i>: 389\u2013404. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1533%2F9780857098863.4.389\">10.1533/9780857098863.4.389</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857094285\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780857094285\"><bdi>9780857094285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Enrichment+with+Omega-3+Fatty+Acids&rft.atitle=Algal+oil+as+a+source+of+omega-3+fatty+acids&rft.pages=389-404&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1533%2F9780857098863.4.389&rft.isbn=9780857094285&rft.aulast=Winwood&rft.aufirst=R.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLenihan-GeelsBishopFerguson2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lenihan-Geels, Georgia; Bishop, Karen; Ferguson, Lynnette (18 April 2013). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705349\">\"Alternative Sources of Omega-3 Fats: Can We Find a Sustainable Substitute for Fish?\"</a>. <i>Nutrients</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 1301\u20131315. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fnu5041301\">10.3390/nu5041301</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705349\">3705349</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23598439\">23598439</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nutrients&rft.atitle=Alternative+Sources+of+Omega-3+Fats%3A+Can+We+Find+a+Sustainable+Substitute+for+Fish%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1301-1315&rft.date=2013-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3705349%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23598439&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fnu5041301&rft.aulast=Lenihan-Geels&rft.aufirst=Georgia&rft.au=Bishop%2C+Karen&rft.au=Ferguson%2C+Lynnette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3705349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3_81-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFVenkatesh2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Venkatesh, G. (1 March 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs43615-021-00084-3\">\"Circular Bio-economy\u2014Paradigm for the Future: Systematic Review of Scientific Journal Publications from 2015 to 2021\"</a>. <i>Circular Economy and Sustainability</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 231\u2013279. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs43615-021-00084-3\">10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2730-5988\">2730-5988</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238768104\">238768104</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Circular+Economy+and+Sustainability&rft.atitle=Circular+Bio-economy%E2%80%94Paradigm+for+the+Future%3A+Systematic+Review+of+Scientific+Journal+Publications+from+2015+to+2021&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=231-279&rft.date=2022-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A238768104%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2730-5988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs43615-021-00084-3&rft.aulast=Venkatesh&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs43615-021-00084-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFDiazDouglasKangKolarik2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Diaz, Crisandra J.; Douglas, Kai J.; Kang, Kalisa; Kolarik, Ashlynn L.; Malinovski, Rodeon; Torres-Tiji, Yasin; Molino, Jo\u00e3o V.; Badary, Amr; Mayfield, Stephen P. (2023). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9892066\">\"Developing algae as a sustainable food source\"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Nutrition</i>. <b>9</b>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnut.2022.1029841\">10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2296-861X\">2296-861X</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9892066\">9892066</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36742010\">36742010</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Developing+algae+as+a+sustainable+food+source&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9892066%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2296-861X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36742010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnut.2022.1029841&rft.aulast=Diaz&rft.aufirst=Crisandra+J.&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Kai+J.&rft.au=Kang%2C+Kalisa&rft.au=Kolarik%2C+Ashlynn+L.&rft.au=Malinovski%2C+Rodeon&rft.au=Torres-Tiji%2C+Yasin&rft.au=Molino%2C+Jo%C3%A3o+V.&rft.au=Badary%2C+Amr&rft.au=Mayfield%2C+Stephen+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9892066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Algaculture_:0-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Algaculture_:0_83-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf\"><i>In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018</i></a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. FAO. 2018.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+brief%2C+The+State+of+World+Fisheries+and+Aquaculture%2C+2018&rft.pub=FAO&rft.date=2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fca0191en%2Fca0191en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFVerdelho_VieiraCadoretAcienBenemann2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Verdelho Vieira, V\u00edtor; Cadoret, Jean-Paul; Acien, F. Gabriel; Benemann, John (January 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpr10010175\">\"Clarification of Most Relevant Concepts Related to the Microalgae Production Sector\"</a>. <i>Processes</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 175. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpr10010175\">10.3390/pr10010175</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2227-9717\">2227-9717</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Processes&rft.atitle=Clarification+of+Most+Relevant+Concepts+Related+to+the+Microalgae+Production+Sector&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=175&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fpr10010175&rft.issn=2227-9717&rft.aulast=Verdelho+Vieira&rft.aufirst=V%C3%ADtor&rft.au=Cadoret%2C+Jean-Paul&rft.au=Acien%2C+F.+Gabriel&rft.au=Benemann%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fpr10010175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213_85-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGreeneScott-BuechlerHausnerJohnson2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Greene, Charles; Scott-Buechler, Celina; Hausner, Arjun; Johnson, Zackary; Lei, Xin Gen; Huntley, Mark (2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2022.213\">\"Transforming the Future of Marine Aquaculture: A Circular Economy Approach\"</a>. <i>Oceanography</i>: 26\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2022.213\">10.5670/oceanog.2022.213</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1042-8275\">1042-8275</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanography&rft.atitle=Transforming+the+Future+of+Marine+Aquaculture%3A+A+Circular+Economy+Approach&rft.pages=26-34&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5670%2Foceanog.2022.213&rft.issn=1042-8275&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Scott-Buechler%2C+Celina&rft.au=Hausner%2C+Arjun&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Zackary&rft.au=Lei%2C+Xin+Gen&rft.au=Huntley%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5670%252Foceanog.2022.213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>\n<ul><li>News article about the study: <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/nutrient-rich-algae-could-help-meet-global-food-demand-cornell-researchers-1.6117300\">\"Nutrient-rich algae could help meet global food demand: Cornell researchers\"</a>. <i>CTVNews</i>. 20 October 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CTVNews&rft.atitle=Nutrient-rich+algae+could+help+meet+global+food+demand%3A+Cornell+researchers&rft.date=2022-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctvnews.ca%2Fsci-tech%2Fnutrient-rich-algae-could-help-meet-global-food-demand-cornell-researchers-1.6117300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n</span></li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFReynoldsCaminitiEdmundsonGao2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Reynolds, Daman; Caminiti, Jeff; Edmundson, Scott; Gao, Song; Wick, Macdonald; Huesemann, Michael (12 July 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac190\">\"Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet\"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</i>. <b>116</b> (4): 855\u2013861. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2Fnqac190\">10.1093/ajcn/nqac190</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9165\">0002-9165</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35820048\">35820048</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Clinical+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Seaweed+proteins+are+nutritionally+valuable+components+in+the+human+diet&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=855-861&rft.date=2022-07-12&rft.issn=0002-9165&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35820048&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2Fnqac190&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Daman&rft.au=Caminiti%2C+Jeff&rft.au=Edmundson%2C+Scott&rft.au=Gao%2C+Song&rft.au=Wick%2C+Macdonald&rft.au=Huesemann%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2Fnqac190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ptreyes.org/activities/seaweeds-plants-or-algae\">\"Seaweeds: Plants or Algae?\"</a>. <i>Point Reyes National Seashore Association</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Point+Reyes+National+Seashore+Association&rft.atitle=Seaweeds%3A+Plants+or+Algae%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ptreyes.org%2Factivities%2Fseaweeds-plants-or-algae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann_88-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBuschmannCamusInfanteNeori2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Buschmann, Alejandro H.; Camus, Carolina; Infante, Javier; Neori, Amir; Israel, \u00c1lvaro; Hern\u00e1ndez-Gonz\u00e1lez, Mar\u00eda C.; Pereda, Sandra V.; Gomez-Pinchetti, Juan Luis; Golberg, Alexander; Tadmor-Shalev, Niva; Critchley, Alan T. 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(2010). \"An Outlook on Microalgal Biofuels\". <i>Science</i>. <b>329</b> (5993): 796\u2013799. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...329..796W\">2010Sci...329..796W</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1189003\">10.1126/science.1189003</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20705853\">20705853</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206526311\">206526311</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=An+Outlook+on+Microalgal+Biofuels&rft.volume=329&rft.issue=5993&rft.pages=796-799&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1189003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206526311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20705853&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Sci...329..796W&rft.aulast=Wijffels&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9+H.&rft.au=Barbosa%2C+Maria+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-101\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRead1849\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Clare_Sewell_Read\" title=\"Clare Sewell Read\">Read, Clare Sewell</a> (1849). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=UJYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142\">\"On the Farming of South Wales: Prize Report\"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England</i>. <b>10</b>: 142\u2013143.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Agricultural+Society+of+England&rft.atitle=On+the+Farming+of+South+Wales%3A+Prize+Report&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=142-143&rft.date=1849&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=Clare+Sewell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUJYEAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-102\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMcHugh2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">McHugh, Dennis J. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4765E/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage\">\"9, Other Uses of Seaweeds\"</a>. <i>A Guide to the Seaweed Industry: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441</i>. Rome: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-104958-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-92-5-104958-7\"><bdi>978-92-5-104958-7</bdi></a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081228115716/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4765e/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage\">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2008.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9%2C+Other+Uses+of+Seaweeds&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Seaweed+Industry%3A+FAO+Fisheries+Technical+Paper+441&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Fisheries+and+Aquaculture+Department%2C+Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+%28FAO%29+of+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-92-5-104958-7&rft.aulast=McHugh&rft.aufirst=Dennis+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2FDOCREP%2F006%2FY4765E%2Fy4765e0c.htm%23TopOfPage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-103\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFJungKruger-GengeKupperWaldeck2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jung, Frederich; Kruger-Genge, Anne; Kupper, J.-H.; Waldeck, P (April 2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332594307\">\"Spirulina platensis, a super food?\"</a>. <i>ResearchGate</i>. <b>5</b>: 43<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ResearchGate&rft.atitle=Spirulina+platensis%2C+a+super+food%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=43&rft.date=2019-04&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=Frederich&rft.au=Kruger-Genge%2C+Anne&rft.au=Kupper%2C+J.-H.&rft.au=Waldeck%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332594307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-104\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSimoons1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Simoons, Frederick J. (1991). \"6, Seaweeds and Other Algae\". <i>Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry</i>. CRC Press. pp. 179\u2013190. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-936923-29-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-936923-29-1\"><bdi>978-0-936923-29-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%2C+Seaweeds+and+Other+Algae&rft.btitle=Food+in+China%3A+A+Cultural+and+Historical+Inquiry&rft.pages=179-190&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-936923-29-1&rft.aulast=Simoons&rft.aufirst=Frederick+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-105\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMorton\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Morton, Steve L. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081223081614/http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm\">\"Modern Uses of Cultivated Algae\"</a>. <i>Ethnobotanical Leaflets</i>. Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm\">the original</a> on 23 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnobotanical+Leaflets&rft.atitle=Modern+Uses+of+Cultivated+Algae&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Steve+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.siu.edu%2F~ebl%2Fleaflets%2Falgae.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMondrag\u00f3nMondrag\u00f3n2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mondrag\u00f3n, Jennifer; Mondrag\u00f3n, Jeff (2003). <i>Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast</i>. Monterey, California: Sea Challengers Publications. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930118-29-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-930118-29-7\"><bdi>978-0-930118-29-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+Pacific+Coast&rft.place=Monterey%2C+California&rft.pub=Sea+Challengers+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-930118-29-7&rft.aulast=Mondrag%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Mondrag%C3%B3n%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-107\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=11752&sk=0&from=results&-session=abv3:51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7\">\"Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot\"</a>. AlgaeBase.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Durvillaea+antarctica+%28Chamisso%29+Hariot&rft.pub=AlgaeBase&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algaebase.org%2Fspeciesdetail.lasso%3Fspecies_id%3D11752%26sk%3D0%26from%3Dresults%26-session%3Dabv3%3A51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-108\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/how-marine-algae-could-help-feed-the-world\">\"How marine algae could help feed the world\"</a>. <i>World Economic Forum</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Economic+Forum&rft.atitle=How+marine+algae+could+help+feed+the+world&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weforum.org%2Fagenda%2F2017%2F10%2Fhow-marine-algae-could-help-feed-the-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-109\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/12/why-algae-and-seaweed-could-be-part-of-solving-the-global-hunger-crisis\">\"One solution to global hunger could be at the bottom of the ocean\"</a>. <i>World Economic Forum</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Economic+Forum&rft.atitle=One+solution+to+global+hunger+could+be+at+the+bottom+of+the+ocean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weforum.org%2Fagenda%2F2017%2F12%2Fwhy-algae-and-seaweed-could-be-part-of-solving-the-global-hunger-crisis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-110\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-110\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/algae-food-future.htm\">\"Algae: Pond Scum or Food of the Future?\"</a>. <i>HowStuffWorks</i>. 12 June 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=Algae%3A+Pond+Scum+or+Food+of+the+Future%3F&rft.date=2018-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Finnovation%2Fedible-innovations%2Falgae-food-future.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRaniSandalSahoo2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rani, Komal; Sandal, Nidi; Sahoo, PK (2018). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2018/vol7issue7/PartJ/7-7-62-339.pdf\">\"A comprehensive review on chlorella- its composition, health benefits, market and regulatory scenario\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Pharma Innovation Journal</i>. <b>7</b> (7): 585. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2018/vol7issue7/PartJ/7-7-62-339.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pharma+Innovation+Journal&rft.atitle=A+comprehensive+review+on+chlorella-+its+composition%2C+health+benefits%2C+market+and+regulatory+scenario&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=585&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Rani&rft.aufirst=Komal&rft.au=Sandal%2C+Nidi&rft.au=Sahoo%2C+PK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepharmajournal.com%2Farchives%2F2018%2Fvol7issue7%2FPartJ%2F7-7-62-339.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-112\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bantilan, C., MS, RD, CD. (2020, July 15). <i>What's the difference between chlorella and spirulina?</i> Healthline. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/chlorella-spirulina\">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/chlorella-spirulina</a></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-113\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBigognoKhozin-GoldbergBoussibaVonshak2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bigogno, C.; Khozin-Goldberg, I.; Boussiba, S.; Vonshak, A.; Cohen, Z. (2002). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11320290\">\"Lipid and fatty acid composition of the green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid\"</a>. <i>Phytochemistry</i>. <b>60</b> (5): 497\u2013503. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-9422%2802%2900100-0\">10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00100-0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12052516\">12052516</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20171001204617/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11320290\">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2017.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phytochemistry&rft.atitle=Lipid+and+fatty+acid+composition+of+the+green+oleaginous+alga+Parietochloris+incisa%2C+the+richest+plant+source+of+arachidonic+acid&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=497-503&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0031-9422%2802%2900100-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12052516&rft.aulast=Bigogno&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Khozin-Goldberg%2C+I.&rft.au=Boussiba%2C+S.&rft.au=Vonshak%2C+A.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F11320290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAubrey2007\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Aubrey, Allison (1 November 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852\">\"Getting Brain Food Straight from the Source\"</a>. <i>Morning Edition</i>. <a href=\"/wiki/NPR\" title=\"NPR\">NPR</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20071103025842/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852\">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2007.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Morning+Edition&rft.atitle=Getting+Brain+Food+Straight+from+the+Source&rft.date=2007-11-01&rft.aulast=Aubrey&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D15823852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-115\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/re-imagining-algae/7926214-AU\">\"Re-imagining algae\"</a>. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 12 October 2016. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20170202043210/http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/re-imagining-algae/7926214\">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Re-imagining+algae&rft.pub=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.date=2016-10-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fradionational%2Fprograms%2Ffuturetense%2Fre-imagining-algae%2F7926214-AU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMorrisseyJonesHarriott1988\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Morrissey, J.; Jones, M. S.; Harriott, V. (1988). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859\">\"Nutrient cycling in the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium \u2013 Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia\"</a>. <i>ReefBase</i>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20150223045428/http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859\">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2015.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ReefBase&rft.atitle=Nutrient+cycling+in+the+Great+Barrier+Reef+Aquarium+%E2%80%93+Proceedings+of+the+6th+International+Coral+Reef+Symposium%2C+Australia&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Morrissey&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Jones%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Harriott%2C+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reefbase.org%2Fresource_center%2Fpublication%2Fmain.aspx%3Frefid%3D10859&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-117\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263\">\"Patent US4333263 \u2013 Algal turf scrubber\"</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20110906144244/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263\">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2011 – via Google Patent Search.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patent+US4333263+%E2%80%93+Algal+turf+scrubber&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fpatents%2Fabout%3Fid%3DNogyAAAAEBAJ%26dq%3DU.S.%2BPatent%2B4333263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-118\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032016/http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf\">\"Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf\">the original</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hydromentia+Water+Treatment+Technologies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hydromentia.com%2FProducts-Services%2FAlgal-Turf-Scrubber%2FProduct-Documentation%2FAssets%2FATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-119\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFVeraartRoman\u00edTorn\u00e9sSabater2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Veraart, Annelies J.; Roman\u00ed, Anna M.; Torn\u00e9s, Elisabet; Sabater, Sergi (2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.today/20101001181747/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120083425/abstract\">\"Algal Response to Nutrient Enrichment in Forested Oligotrophic Stream\"</a>. <i>Journal of Phycology</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 564\u2013572. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2008.00503.x\">10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00503.x</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27041416\">27041416</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2040067\">2040067</a>. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120083425/abstract\">the original</a> on 1 October 2010.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Phycology&rft.atitle=Algal+Response+to+Nutrient+Enrichment+in+Forested+Oligotrophic+Stream&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=564-572&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2040067%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27041416&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2008.00503.x&rft.aulast=Veraart&rft.aufirst=Annelies+J.&rft.au=Roman%C3%AD%2C+Anna+M.&rft.au=Torn%C3%A9s%2C+Elisabet&rft.au=Sabater%2C+Sergi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fjournal%2F120083425%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-120\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm\">\"Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine\"</a>. USDA Agricultural Research Service. 7 May 2010. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20101019142625/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2010.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae%3A+A+Mean%2C+Green+Cleaning+Machine&rft.pub=USDA+Agricultural+Research+Service&rft.date=2010-05-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ars.usda.gov%2Fis%2FAR%2Farchive%2Fmay10%2Falgae0510.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-121\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.oilgae.com/non_fuel_products/biopolymers.html\">\"Algae Biopolymers, Companies, Production, Market \u2013 Oilgae \u2013 Oil from Algae\"</a>. <i>oilgae.com</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oilgae.com&rft.atitle=Algae+Biopolymers%2C+Companies%2C+Production%2C+Market+%E2%80%93+Oilgae+%E2%80%93+Oil+from+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oilgae.com%2Fnon_fuel_products%2Fbiopolymers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-122\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.zmescience.com/science/algae-flip-flop/\">\"Renewable flip flops: scientists produce the 'No. 1' footwear in the world from algae\"</a>. <i>ZME Science</i>. 9 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZME+Science&rft.atitle=Renewable+flip+flops%3A+scientists+produce+the+%27No.+1%27+footwear+in+the+world+from+algae&rft.date=2017-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmescience.com%2Fscience%2Falgae-flip-flop%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-123\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/articles/world-s-first-algae-surfboard-makes-waves-san-diego\">\"World's First Algae Surfboard Makes Waves in San Diego\"</a>. <i>Energy.gov</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=World%27s+First+Algae+Surfboard+Makes+Waves+in+San+Diego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fbioenergy%2Farticles%2Fworld-s-first-algae-surfboard-makes-waves-san-diego&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-124\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCappitelliSorlini2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cappitelli, Francesca; Sorlini, Claudia (2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722\">\"Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage\"</a>. <i>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 564\u2013569. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApEnM..74..564C\">2008ApEnM..74..564C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07\">10.1128/AEM.01768-07</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722\">2227722</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18065627\">18065627</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+and+Environmental+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Microorganisms+Attack+Synthetic+Polymers+in+Items+Representing+Our+Cultural+Heritage&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=564-569&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2227722%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18065627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ApEnM..74..564C&rft.aulast=Cappitelli&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Sorlini%2C+Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2227722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAradSpharim1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Arad, Shoshana; Spharim, Ishai (1998). \"Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry\". In Altman, Arie (ed.). <i>Agricultural Biotechnology</i>. Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment. Vol. 61. CRC Press. p. 638. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-9439-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-9439-2\"><bdi>978-0-8247-9439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Production+of+Valuable+Products+from+Microalgae%3A+An+Emerging+Agroindustry&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Biotechnology&rft.series=Books+in+Soils%2C+Plants%2C+and+the+Environment&rft.pages=638&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-9439-2&rft.aulast=Arad&rft.aufirst=Shoshana&rft.au=Spharim%2C+Ishai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRathbunDoyleWaterhouse1994\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rathbun, C.; Doyle, A.; Waterhouse, T. (June 1994). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064738/http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf\">\"Measurement of Algal Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by HPLC\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Joint Global Ocean Flux Study Protocols</i>. <b>13</b>: 91\u201396. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf\">the original</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joint+Global+Ocean+Flux+Study+Protocols&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+Algal+Chlorophylls+and+Carotenoids+by+HPLC&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=91-96&rft.date=1994-06&rft.aulast=Rathbun&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Doyle%2C+A.&rft.au=Waterhouse%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbats.bios.edu%2Fmethods%2Fchapter13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLatasaBidigare1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Latasa, M.; Bidigare, R. (1998). \"A comparison of phytoplankton populations of the Arabian Sea during the Spring Intermonsoon and Southwest Monsoon of 1995 as described by HPLC-analyzed pigments\". <i>Deep-Sea Research Part II</i>. <b>45</b> (10\u201311): 2133\u20132170. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998DSRII..45.2133L\">1998DSRII..45.2133L</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2898%2900066-6\">10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00066-6</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+II&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+phytoplankton+populations+of+the+Arabian+Sea+during+the+Spring+Intermonsoon+and+Southwest+Monsoon+of+1995+as+described+by+HPLC-analyzed+pigments&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=10%E2%80%9311&rft.pages=2133-2170&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2898%2900066-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998DSRII..45.2133L&rft.aulast=Latasa&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Bidigare%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n</ol></div></div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=35\" title=\"Edit section: Bibliography\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1054258005\">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General\">General</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=36\" title=\"Edit section: General\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFChapman1950\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chapman, V.J. (1950). <i>Seaweeds and their Uses</i>. London: Methuen. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-15740-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-412-15740-0\"><bdi>978-0-412-15740-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+and+their+Uses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-412-15740-0&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=V.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFFritsch1945\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol\">Fritsch, F. E. (1945) [1935]. <i>The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae</i>. Vol. I & II. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+and+Reproduction+of+the+Algae&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Fritsch&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFvan_den_HoekMannJahns1995\" class=\"citation book cs1\">van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. M. (1995). <i>Algae: An Introduction to Phycology</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algae%3A+An+Introduction+to+Phycology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=van+den+Hoek&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Mann%2C+D.+G.&rft.au=Jahns%2C+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKassinger2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kassinger, Ruth (2020). <i>Slime: How Algae Created Us, Plague Us, and Just Might Save Us</i>. Mariner.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slime%3A+How+Algae+Created+Us%2C+Plague+Us%2C+and+Just+Might+Save+Us&rft.pub=Mariner&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kassinger&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLembiWaaland1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). <i>Algae and Human Affairs</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Lembi&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Waaland%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMumfordMiura1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mumford, T. F.; Miura, A. (1988). \"<i>Porphyra</i> as food: cultivation and economic\". In Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J. R. (eds.). <i>Algae and Human Affairs</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87\u2013117. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Porphyra+as+food%3A+cultivation+and+economic&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pages=87-117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Mumford&rft.aufirst=T.+F.&rft.au=Miura%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFRound1981\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Round, F. E. (1981). <i>The Ecology of Algae</i>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22583-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22583-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-22583-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Algae&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22583-0&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSmith1938\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Smith, G. M. (1938). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp\"><i>Cryptogamic Botany</i></a>. Vol. I. New York: McGraw-Hill.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cryptogamic+Botany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=G.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcryptogamicbotan031880mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAsk1990\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ask, E.I (1990). <i>Cottonii and Spinosum Cultivation Handbook</i>. FMC BioPolymer Corporation.Philippines.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cottonii+and+Spinosum+Cultivation+Handbook&rft.pub=FMC+BioPolymer+Corporation.Philippines&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Ask&rft.aufirst=E.I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regional\">Regional</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=37\" title=\"Edit section: Regional\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Britain_and_Ireland\">Britain and Ireland</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=38\" title=\"Edit section: Britain and Ireland\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFBrodieBurrowsChamberlainChristensen1977\u20132003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M.; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R. L.; Hommersand, Max H.; Irvine, Linda M.; Maggs, Christine A. (1977\u20132003). <i>Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)</i>. London / Andover: British Museum of Natural History, HMSO / Intercept. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-00781-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-565-00781-2\"><bdi>978-0-565-00781-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+British+Isles%3A+A+Collaborative+Project+of+the+British+Phycological+Society+and+the+British+Museum+%28Natural+History%29&rft.place=London+%2F+Andover&rft.pub=British+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+HMSO+%2F+Intercept&rft.date=1977%2F2003&rft.isbn=978-0-565-00781-2&rft.aulast=Brodie&rft.aufirst=Juliet&rft.au=Burrows%2C+Elsie+M.&rft.au=Chamberlain%2C+Yvonne+M.&rft.au=Christensen%2C+Tyge&rft.au=Dixon%2C+Peter+Stanley&rft.au=Fletcher%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Hommersand%2C+Max+H.&rft.au=Irvine%2C+Linda+M.&rft.au=Maggs%2C+Christine+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCullinane1973\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cullinane, John P. (1973). <i>Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland</i>. Cork: Cork University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phycology+of+the+South+Coast+of+Ireland&rft.place=Cork&rft.pub=Cork+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Cullinane&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHardyAspinall1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hardy, F. G.; Aspinall, R. J. (1988). <i>An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham</i>. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9509680-5-6\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-9509680-5-6\"><bdi>978-0-9509680-5-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+of+the+Seaweeds+of+Northumberland+and+Durham&rft.place=The+Hancock+Museum%2C+University+Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Northumberland+Biological+Records+Centre&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-9509680-5-6&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=F.+G.&rft.au=Aspinall%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHardyGuiryArnold2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hardy, F. G.; <a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael D.</a>; Arnold, Henry R. (2006). <i>A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland</i> (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-906166-35-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-3-906166-35-3\"><bdi>978-3-906166-35-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Check-list+and+Atlas+of+the+Seaweeds+of+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=British+Phycological+Society&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-906166-35-3&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=F.+G.&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Henry+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFJohnWhittonBrook2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">John, D. M.; Whitton, B. A.; Brook, J. A. (2002). <i>The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles</i>. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4\"><bdi>978-0-521-77051-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Freshwater+Algal+Flora+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Cambridge+%2F+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77051-4&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rft.au=Whitton%2C+B.+A.&rft.au=Brook%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKnightParke1931\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W. (1931). <i>Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man</i>. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. Vol. XXX. Liverpool: University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manx+Algae%3A+An+Algal+Survey+of+the+South+End+of+the+Isle+of+Man&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.series=Liverpool+Marine+Biology+Committee+Memoirs+on+Typical+British+Marine+Plants+%26+Animals&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Margery&rft.au=Parke%2C+Mary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMorton1994\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Morton, Osborne (1994). <i>Marine Algae of Northern Ireland</i>. Belfast: Ulster Museum. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900761-28-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-900761-28-7\"><bdi>978-0-900761-28-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+Northern+Ireland&rft.place=Belfast&rft.pub=Ulster+Museum&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-900761-28-7&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Osborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFMorton2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). \"The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland\". <i>Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society</i>. <b>27</b>: 3\u2013164.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Irish+Biogeographical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Marine+Macroalgae+of+County+Donegal%2C+Ireland&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=3-164&rft.date=2003-12-01&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Osborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=39\" title=\"Edit section: Australia\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFHuisman2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Huisman, J. M. (2000). <i>Marine Plants of Australia</i>. University of Western Australia Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876268-33-6\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-876268-33-6\"><bdi>978-1-876268-33-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Plants+of+Australia&rft.pub=University+of+Western+Australia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-876268-33-6&rft.aulast=Huisman&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"New_Zealand\">New Zealand</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=40\" title=\"Edit section: New Zealand\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFChapmanLindauerAikenDromgoole1970\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M.; Dromgoole, F. I. (1970) [1900, 1956, 1961, 1969]. <i>The Marine algae of New Zealand</i>. London / Lehre, Germany: Linnean Society of London / Cramer.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marine+algae+of+New+Zealand&rft.place=London+%2F+Lehre%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Linnean+Society+of+London+%2F+Cramer&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Valentine+Jackson&rft.au=Lindauer%2C+VW&rft.au=Aiken%2C+M.&rft.au=Dromgoole%2C+F.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Europe\">Europe</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=41\" title=\"Edit section: Europe\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFCabioc'hFloc'hLe_ToquinBoudouresque1992\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-Fran\u00e7ois; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992). <i>Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e</i> (in French). Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestl\u00e9. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-603-00848-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-2-603-00848-5\"><bdi>978-2-603-00848-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+des+algues+des+mers+d%27Europe%3A+Manche%2FAtlantique-M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e&rft.place=Lausanne%2C+Suisse&rft.pub=Delachaux+et+Niestl%C3%A9&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-2-603-00848-5&rft.aulast=Cabioc%27h&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rft.au=Floc%27h%2C+Jean-Yves&rft.au=Le+Toquin%2C+Alain&rft.au=Boudouresque%2C+Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Meinesz%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Verlaque%2C+Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGayral1966\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Gayral, Paulette (1966). <i>Les Algues de c\u00f4tes fran\u00e7aises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'\u00e9cologie, la biologie et la syst\u00e9matique des algues marines</i> (in French). Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Algues+de+c%C3%B4tes+fran%C3%A7aises+%28manche+et+atlantique%29%2C+notions+fondamentales+sur+l%27%C3%A9cologie%2C+la+biologie+et+la+syst%C3%A9matique+des+algues+marines&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Doin%2C+Deren+et+Cie&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Gayral&rft.aufirst=Paulette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGuiryBlunden1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael. D.</a>; Blunden, G. (1991). <i>Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92947-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92947-5\"><bdi>978-0-471-92947-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweed+Resources+in+Europe%3A+Uses+and+Potential&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-471-92947-5&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael.+D.&rft.au=Blunden%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFM\u00edguez_Rodr\u00edguez1998\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">M\u00edguez Rodr\u00edguez, Lu\u00eds (1998). <i>Algas mari\u00f1as de Galicia: Biolox\u00eda, gastronom\u00eda, industria</i> (in Galician). Vigo: Edici\u00f3ns Xerais de Galicia. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8302-263-4\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-84-8302-263-4\"><bdi>978-84-8302-263-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algas+mari%C3%B1as+de+Galicia%3A+Biolox%C3%ADa%2C+gastronom%C3%ADa%2C+industria&rft.place=Vigo&rft.pub=Edici%C3%B3ns+Xerais+de+Galicia&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-84-8302-263-4&rft.aulast=M%C3%ADguez+Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.aufirst=Lu%C3%ADs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFOtero2002\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Otero, J. (2002). <i>Gu\u00eda das macroalgas de Galicia</i> (in Galician). A Coru\u00f1a: Ba\u00eda Edici\u00f3ns. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-89803-22-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-84-89803-22-0\"><bdi>978-84-89803-22-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gu%C3%ADa+das+macroalgas+de+Galicia&rft.place=A+Coru%C3%B1a&rft.pub=Ba%C3%ADa+Edici%C3%B3ns&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-84-89803-22-0&rft.aulast=Otero&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFB\u00e1rbaraCremades1993\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">B\u00e1rbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993). <i>Gu\u00eda de las algas del litoral gallego</i> (in Spanish). A Coru\u00f1a: Concello da Coru\u00f1a \u2013 Casa das Ciencias.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gu%C3%ADa+de+las+algas+del+litoral+gallego&rft.place=A+Coru%C3%B1a&rft.pub=Concello+da+Coru%C3%B1a+%E2%80%93+Casa+das+Ciencias&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=B%C3%A1rbara&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Cremades%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Arctic\">Arctic</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=42\" title=\"Edit section: Arctic\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFKjellman1883\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). <i>The algae of the Arctic Sea: A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora</i>. Vol. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp. 1\u2013350.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+algae+of+the+Arctic+Sea%3A+A+survey+of+the+species%2C+together+with+an+exposition+of+the+general+characters+and+the+development+of+the+flora&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pages=1-350&rft.pub=Kungl.+Svenska+vetenskapsakademiens+handlingar&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Kjellman&rft.aufirst=Frans+Reinhold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Greenland\">Greenland</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=43\" title=\"Edit section: Greenland\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFLund1959\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lund, S\u00f8ren Jensen (1959). <i>The Marine Algae of East Greenland</i>. K\u00f6venhavn: C.A. Reitzel. 9584734.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marine+Algae+of+East+Greenland&rft.place=K%C3%B6venhavn&rft.pub=C.A.+Reitzel&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren+Jensen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Faroe_Islands\">Faroe Islands</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=44\" title=\"Edit section: Faroe Islands\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFB\u00f8rgesen1970\" class=\"citation book cs1\">B\u00f8rgesen, Frederik (1970) [1903]. \"Marine Algae\". In Warming, Eugene (ed.). <i>Botany of the Far\u00f6es Based Upon Danish Investigations, Part II</i>. Copenhagen: Det nordiske Forlag. pp. 339\u2013532.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marine+Algae&rft.btitle=Botany+of+the+Far%C3%B6es+Based+Upon+Danish+Investigations%2C+Part+II&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=339-532&rft.pub=Det+nordiske+Forlag&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=B%C3%B8rgesen&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Canary_Islands\">Canary Islands</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=45\" title=\"Edit section: Canary Islands\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFB\u00f8rgesen1936\" class=\"citation book cs1\">B\u00f8rgesen, Frederik (1936) [1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930]. <i>Marine Algae from the Canary Islands</i>. Copenhagen: Bianco Lunos.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+from+the+Canary+Islands&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pub=Bianco+Lunos&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=B%C3%B8rgesen&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Morocco\">Morocco</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=46\" title=\"Edit section: Morocco\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGayral1958\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Gayral, Paulette (1958). <i>Algues de la c\u00f4te atlantique marocaine</i> (in French). Casablanca: Rabat [Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc].</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algues+de+la+c%C3%B4te+atlantique+marocaine&rft.place=Casablanca&rft.pub=Rabat+%5BSoci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+sciences+naturelles+et+physiques+du+Maroc%5D&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Gayral&rft.aufirst=Paulette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"South_Africa\">South Africa</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=47\" title=\"Edit section: South Africa\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFStegengaBoltonAnderson1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J. J.; Anderson, R. J. (1997). <i>Seaweeds of the South African West Coast</i>. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7992-1793-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-7992-1793-3\"><bdi>978-0-7992-1793-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+South+African+West+Coast&rft.pub=Bolus+Herbarium%2C+University+of+Cape+Town&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7992-1793-3&rft.aulast=Stegenga&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Bolton%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"North_America\">North America</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=48\" title=\"Edit section: North America\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAbbottHollenberg1976\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Abbott, I. A.; Hollenberg, G. J. (1976). <i>Marine Algae of California</i>. California: Stanford University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0867-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0867-8\"><bdi>978-0-8047-0867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+California&rft.place=California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0867-8&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=I.+A.&rft.au=Hollenberg%2C+G.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGreeson1982\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree\"><i>An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States</i></a>. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+annotated+key+to+the+identification+of+commonly+occurring+and+dominant+genera+of+Algae+observed+in+the+Phytoplankton+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=US+Department+of+the+Interior%2C+Geological+Survey&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Greeson&rft.aufirst=Phillip+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannotatedkeytoid00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFTaylor1969\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Taylor, William Randolph (1969) [1937, 1957, 1962]. <i>Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-04904-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-472-04904-2\"><bdi>978-0-472-04904-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+the+Northeastern+Coast+of+North+America&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-472-04904-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=William+Randolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFWehrSheath2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wehr, J. D.; Sheath, R. G. (2003). <i>Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification</i>. Academic Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-741550-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-741550-5\"><bdi>978-0-12-741550-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freshwater+Algae+of+North+America%3A+Ecology+and+Classification&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-741550-5&rft.aulast=Wehr&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Sheath%2C+R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n</div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=49\" title=\"Edit section: External links\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1134653256\">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1126788409\">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style>\n<div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style=\"font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\"><a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Algae\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Algae\">Algae</a></span>.</div></div>\n</div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1134653256\"/><div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409\"/>\n<div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"34\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"941\" data-file-height=\"1103\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikispecies\" title=\"Wikispecies\">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Algae\">Algae</a></b></i>.</div></div>\n</div>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFGuiryGuiry\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael</a>; Guiry, Wendy. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algaebase.org\">\"AlgaeBase\"</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AlgaeBase&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Wendy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algaebase.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span> \u2013 a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts</li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae&event=display&Submit=Go&start=1\">\"Algae \u2013 Cell Centered Database\"</a>. <i>CCDb.UCSD.edu</i>. San Diego: University of California.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CCDb.UCSD.edu&rft.atitle=Algae+%E2%80%93+Cell+Centered+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccdb.ucsd.edu%2Fsand%2Fmain%3Fstype%3Dlite%26keyword%3Dalgae%26event%3Ddisplay%26Submit%3DGo%26start%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081201013721/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/\">\"Algae Research\"</a>. National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/\">the original</a> on 1 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+Research&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+Department+of+Botany&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFAndersonKeaferKleindinstShaughnessy2007\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Anderson, Don; Keafer, Bruce; Kleindinst, Judy; Shaughnessy, Katie; Joyce, Katherine; Fino, Danielle; Shepherd, Adam (2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779\">\"Harmful Algae\"</a>. US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779\">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harmful+Algae&rft.pub=US+National+Office+for+Harmful+Algal+Blooms&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.au=Keafer%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Kleindinst%2C+Judy&rft.au=Shaughnessy%2C+Katie&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Katherine&rft.au=Fino%2C+Danielle&rft.au=Shepherd%2C+Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoi.edu%2Fredtide%2Fpage.do%3Fpid%3D14779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081230140015/http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2\">\"Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)\"</a>. Department of Environment / Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2\">the original</a> on 30 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australian+Freshwater+Algae+%28AFA%29&rft.pub=Department+of+Environment+%2F+Climate+Change+NSW+Botanic+Gardens+Trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au%2Fscience%2Fhot_science_topics%2Faustralian_freshwater_algae2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://diatom.ansp.org/\">\"Freshwater Algae Research\"</a>. Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research. 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freshwater+Algae+Research&rft.pub=Phycology+Section%2C+Patrick+Center+for+Environmental+Research&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiatom.ansp.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090125102348/http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm\">\"Monterey Bay Flora\"</a>. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). 1996\u20132008. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm\">the original</a> on 25 January 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Monterey+Bay+Flora&rft.pub=Monterey+Bay+Aquarium+Research+Institute+%28MBARI%29&rft.date=1996%2F2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbari.org%2Fstaff%2Fconn%2Fbotany%2Fflora%2Fmflora.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite id=\"CITEREFSilva1997\u20132004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Silva, Paul (1997\u20132004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html\">\"Index Nominum Algarum (INA)\"</a>. Berkeley: University Herbarium, University of California. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081223172950/http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html\">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Index+Nominum+Algarum+%28INA%29&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+Herbarium%2C+University+of+California&rft.date=1997%2F2004&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fucjeps.berkeley.edu%2FINA.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=52\">\"Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts\"</a>. <i>TolWeb.org</i>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TolWeb.org&rft.atitle=Algae%3A+Protists+with+Chloroplasts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftolweb.org%2Fnotes%2F%3Fnote_id%3D52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algae.wur.nl/uk/\">\"Research on microalgae\"</a>. <i>Algae.WUR.nl</i>. Wageningen UR. 2009. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090424044729/http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/\">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Algae.WUR.nl&rft.atitle=Research+on+microalgae&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algae.wur.nl%2Fuk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20121101204924/http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/algae/index.html\">\"Algae glossary\"</a>. Australian Biological Resources Study. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/algae/index.html\">the original</a> on 1 November 2012 – via Environment.gov.au.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+glossary&rft.pub=Australian+Biological+Resources+Study&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenvironment.gov.au%2Fbiodiversity%2Fabrs%2Fonline-resources%2Fglossaries%2Falgae%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\"/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/algaevision/about-algae/index.html\">\"About Algae\"</a>. <i>NMH.ac.uk</i>. Natural History Museum, United Kingdom.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NMH.ac.uk&rft.atitle=About+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fresearch-curation%2Fscientific-resources%2Fbiodiversity%2Fuk-biodiversity%2Falgaevision%2Fabout-algae%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.enalgae.eu\">EnAlgae</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20140904213844/http://www.enalgae.eu/\">Archived</a> 4 September 2014 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1129693374\">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:\": \"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:\" \u00b7 \";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r886047488\">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Botany\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1063604349\">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:\"[ \"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:\" ]\"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Botany\" title=\"Template:Botany\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Botany\" title=\"Template talk:Botany\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Botany&action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Botany\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Botany\" title=\"Botany\">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;\"><div id=\"*_History_*_Outline\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/History_of_botany\" title=\"History of botany\">History</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Outline_of_botany\" title=\"Outline of botany\">Outline</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Branches_of_botany\" title=\"Branches of botany\">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeobotany\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Archaeobotany\">Archaeobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Astrobotany\" title=\"Astrobotany\">Astrobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bryology\" title=\"Bryology\">Bryology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dendrology\" title=\"Dendrology\">Dendrology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ethnobotany\" title=\"Ethnobotany\">Ethnobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Paleobotany\" title=\"Paleobotany\">Paleobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycology\" title=\"Phycology\">Phycology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phytochemistry\" title=\"Phytochemistry\">Phytochemistry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phytogeography\" title=\"Phytogeography\">Phytogeography</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting\" title=\"Geobotanical prospecting\">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_anatomy\" title=\"Plant anatomy\">Plant anatomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_ecology\" title=\"Plant ecology\">Plant ecology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_pathology\" title=\"Plant pathology\">Plant pathology</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant\" title=\"Plant\">Plant</a> groups</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Algae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bryophyte\" title=\"Bryophyte\">Bryophyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-vascular_plant\" title=\"Non-vascular plant\">Non-vascular plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_plant\" title=\"Vascular plant\">Vascular plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Spermatophyte\" title=\"Spermatophyte\">Spermatophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pteridophyte\" title=\"Pteridophyte\">Pteridophyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gymnosperm\" title=\"Gymnosperm\">Gymnosperm</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flowering_plant\" title=\"Flowering plant\">Angiosperm</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_anatomy\" title=\"Plant anatomy\">Plant anatomy</a> <div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_morphology\" title=\"Plant morphology\">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class=\"nobold\">(<a href=\"/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology\" title=\"Glossary of plant morphology\">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_cell\" title=\"Plant cell\">Plant cells</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_wall\" title=\"Cell wall\">Cell wall</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phragmoplast\" title=\"Phragmoplast\">Phragmoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">Plastid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmodesma\" title=\"Plasmodesma\">Plasmodesma</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vacuole\" title=\"Vacuole\">Vacuole</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Tissue_(biology)\" title=\"Tissue (biology)\">Tissues</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cork_cambium\" title=\"Cork cambium\">Cork</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ground_tissue\" title=\"Ground tissue\">Ground tissue</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll\" title=\"Leaf\">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Meristem\" title=\"Meristem\">Meristem</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Storage_organ\" title=\"Storage organ\">Storage organs</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_tissue\" title=\"Vascular tissue\">Vascular tissue</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_bundle\" title=\"Vascular bundle\">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Wood\" title=\"Wood\">Wood</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\">Vegetative</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bulb\" title=\"Bulb\">Bulb</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Root\" title=\"Root\">Root</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizoid\" title=\"Rhizoid\">Rhizoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizome\" title=\"Rhizome\">Rhizome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Shoot\" title=\"Shoot\">Shoot</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bud\" title=\"Bud\">Bud</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Leaf\" title=\"Leaf\">Leaf</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cataphyll\" title=\"Cataphyll\">Cataphyll</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Petiole_(botany)\" title=\"Petiole (botany)\">Petiole</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sessility_(botany)\" title=\"Sessility (botany)\">Sessility</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_stem\" title=\"Plant stem\">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology\" title=\"Plant reproductive morphology\">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archegonium\" title=\"Archegonium\">Archegonium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Antheridium\" title=\"Antheridium\">Antheridium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stamen\" title=\"Stamen\">Androecium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollen\" title=\"Pollen\">Pollen</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stamen\" title=\"Stamen\">Stamen</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Staminode\" title=\"Staminode\">Staminode</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)\" title=\"Tapetum (botany)\">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flower\" title=\"Flower\">Flower</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)\" title=\"Aestivation (botany)\">Aestivation</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development\" title=\"ABC model of flower development\">Flower development</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floral_diagram\" title=\"Floral diagram\">Floral diagram</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floral_formula\" title=\"Floral formula\">Floral formula</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floral_symmetry\" title=\"Floral symmetry\">Floral symmetry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Whorl_(botany)\" title=\"Whorl (botany)\">Whorl</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fruit\" title=\"Fruit\">Fruit</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fruit_anatomy\" title=\"Fruit anatomy\">Anatomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Berry_(botany)\" title=\"Berry (botany)\">Berry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)\" title=\"Capsule (fruit)\">Capsule</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nut_(fruit)\" title=\"Nut (fruit)\">Nut</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pyrena\" title=\"Pyrena\">Pyrena</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Seed\" title=\"Seed\">Seed</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Seed_dispersal\" title=\"Seed dispersal\">Dispersal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endosperm\" title=\"Endosperm\">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gametophyte\" title=\"Gametophyte\">Gametophyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Column_(botany)\" title=\"Column (botany)\">Gynandrium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gynoecium\" title=\"Gynoecium\">Gynoecium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Ovary_(botany)\" title=\"Ovary (botany)\">Ovary</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Locule\" title=\"Locule\">Locule</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ovule\" title=\"Ovule\">Ovule</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stigma_(botany)\" title=\"Stigma (botany)\">Stigma</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Hypanthium\" title=\"Hypanthium\">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Inflorescence\" title=\"Inflorescence\">Inflorescence</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bract\" title=\"Bract\">Bract</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)\" title=\"Pedicel (botany)\">Pedicellate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Raceme\" title=\"Raceme\">Raceme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Umbel\" title=\"Umbel\">Umbel</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Perianth\" title=\"Perianth\">Perianth</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Tepal\" title=\"Tepal\">Tepal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Petal\" title=\"Petal\">Petal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sepal\" title=\"Sepal\">Sepal</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos\" title=\"Embryo\">Plant embryo</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)\" title=\"Receptacle (botany)\">Receptacle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporophyll\" title=\"Sporophyll\">Sporophyll</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporophyte\" title=\"Sporophyte\">Sporophyte</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\">Surface structures</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_cuticle\" title=\"Plant cuticle\">Cuticle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Epicuticular_wax\" title=\"Epicuticular wax\">Epicuticular wax</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)\" title=\"Epidermis (botany)\">Epidermis</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nectar\" title=\"Nectar\">Nectar</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stoma\" title=\"Stoma\">Stoma</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles\" title=\"Thorns, spines, and prickles\">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Trichome\" title=\"Trichome\">Trichome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_physiology\" title=\"Plant physiology\">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Aleurone\" title=\"Aleurone\">Aleurone</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apical_dominance\" title=\"Apical dominance\">Apical dominance</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bulk_movement\" title=\"Bulk movement\">Bulk flow</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cellulose\" title=\"Cellulose\">Cellulose</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_nutrition\" title=\"Plant nutrition\">Nutrition</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthesis\" title=\"Photosynthesis\">Photosynthesis</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phytomelanin\" title=\"Phytomelanin\">Phytomelanin</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_hormone\" title=\"Plant hormone\">Plant hormones</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants\" title=\"Respiratory system\">Respiration</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants\" title=\"Gas exchange\">Gas Exchange</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cellular_Respiration\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cellular Respiration\">Cellular Respiration</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sap\" title=\"Sap\">Sap</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Starch\" title=\"Starch\">Starch</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sugar\" title=\"Sugar\">Sugar</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transpiration\" title=\"Transpiration\">Transpiration</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Turgor_pressure\" title=\"Turgor pressure\">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure\" title=\"Habit (biology)\">Habit</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cushion_plant\" title=\"Cushion plant\">Cushion plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rosette_(botany)\" title=\"Rosette (botany)\">Rosettes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Shrub\" title=\"Shrub\">Shrubs</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Prostrate_shrub\" title=\"Prostrate shrub\">Prostrate shrubs</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Subshrub\" title=\"Subshrub\">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Succulent_plant\" title=\"Succulent plant\">Succulent plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Tree\" title=\"Tree\">Trees</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vine\" title=\"Vine\">Vines</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Liana\" title=\"Liana\">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Herbaceous_plant\" title=\"Herbaceous plant\">Herbaceous plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Secondary_growth\" title=\"Secondary growth\">Secondary growth</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Woody_plant\" title=\"Woody plant\">Woody plants</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_reproduction\" title=\"Plant reproduction\">Reproduction</a> <div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_evolution\" title=\"Plant evolution\">Evolution</a></li><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_ecology\" title=\"Plant ecology\">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Alternation_of_generations\" title=\"Alternation of generations\">Alternation of generations</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Double_fertilization\" title=\"Double fertilization\">Double fertilization</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology\" title=\"Plant evolutionary developmental biology\">Evolutionary development</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants\" title=\"Evolutionary history of plants\">Evolutionary history</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution\" title=\"Timeline of plant evolution\">timeline</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flora\" title=\"Flora\">Flora</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Germination\" title=\"Germination\">Germination</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollination\" title=\"Pollination\">Pollination</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Artificial_pollination\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Artificial pollination\">Artificial</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollinator\" title=\"Pollinator\">Pollinators</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollen_tube\" title=\"Pollen tube\">Pollen tube</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Self-pollination\" title=\"Self-pollination\">Self</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporangium\" title=\"Sporangium\">Sporangium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microsporangia\" title=\"Microsporangia\">Microsporangia</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microspore\" title=\"Microspore\">Microspore</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporangium\" title=\"Sporangium\">Megasporangium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Megaspore\" title=\"Megaspore\">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Spore\" title=\"Spore\">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_taxonomy\" title=\"Plant taxonomy\">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)\" title=\"Taxonomy (biology)\">Biological classification</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature\" title=\"Botanical nomenclature\">Botanical nomenclature</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_name\" title=\"Botanical name\">Botanical name</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Correct_name\" title=\"Correct name\">Correct name</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)\" title=\"Author citation (botany)\">Author citation</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants\" title=\"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants\">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants\" title=\"International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants\">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy\" title=\"Cultivated plant taxonomy\">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy\" title=\"Citrus taxonomy\">Citrus taxonomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultigen\" title=\"Cultigen\">Cultigen</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultivar\" title=\"Cultivar\">Cultivar</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultivar_group\" title=\"Cultivar group\">Group</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)\" title=\"Grex (horticulture)\">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics\" title=\"History of plant systematics\">History of plant systematics</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Herbarium\" title=\"Herbarium\">Herbarium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy\" title=\"International Association for Plant Taxonomy\">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy\" title=\"List of systems of plant taxonomy\">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Taxonomic_rank\" title=\"Taxonomic rank\">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\">Practice</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Agronomy\" title=\"Agronomy\">Agronomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floriculture\" title=\"Floriculture\">Floriculture</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Forestry\" title=\"Forestry\">Forestry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Horticulture\" title=\"Horticulture\">Horticulture</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms\" title=\"Glossary of botanical terms\">Botanical terms</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/List_of_botanists\" title=\"List of botanists\">Botanists</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)\" title=\"List of botanists by author abbreviation (W\u2013Z)\">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_expedition\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Botanical expedition\">Botanical expedition</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;font-weight:bold;\"><div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/16px-Leaf_1_web.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"12\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/24px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"768\" /></a> <a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Plants\" title=\"Portal:Plants\">Portal</a></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"WikiProject\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"100\" data-file-height=\"100\" /> <a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Plants\" title=\"Wikipedia:WikiProject Plants\">WikiProject</a></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Category\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"180\" data-file-height=\"185\" /> <a href=\"/wiki/Category:Botany\" title=\"Category:Botany\">Category</a></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Commons page\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /> <a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Botany\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Botany\">Commons</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\"/><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Protist_structures\" title=\"Template:Protist structures\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Protist_structures\" title=\"Template talk:Protist structures\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Protist_structures&action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\">Microbiology</a>: <a href=\"/wiki/Protistology\" title=\"Protistology\">Protistology</a>: <a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">Protists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Former<br />classifications</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Protozoa\" title=\"Protozoa\">Protozoa</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">Mastigophora/Flagellates</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Amoeba\" title=\"Amoeba\">Sarcodina/Amoeboids</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Testate_amoebae\" title=\"Testate amoebae\">Testate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heliozoa\" title=\"Heliozoa\">Heliozoa</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Infusoria\" title=\"Infusoria\">Infusoria</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Ciliate\" title=\"Ciliate\">Ciliates</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexa#Taxonomy\" title=\"Apicomplexa\">Sporozoa</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Algae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptogam\" title=\"Cryptogam\">Cryptogams</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Thallophyte\" title=\"Thallophyte\">Thallophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungus#Fungus-like_organisms\" title=\"Fungus\">Fungus-like organisms</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Slime_mold\" title=\"Slime mold\">Slime molds</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nomenclature_codes#Ambiregnal_protists\" title=\"Nomenclature codes\">Ambiregnal protists</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Morphology</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Viridiplantae\" title=\"Viridiplantae\">Chloroplastida</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li>\"<a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a>\": <a href=\"/wiki/Phycoplast\" title=\"Phycoplast\">Phycoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phragmoplast\" title=\"Phragmoplast\">Phragmoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellum#Types\" title=\"Flagellum\">Flagellar apparatus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyte\" title=\"Glaucophyte\">Glaucophytes</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanelle\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cyanelle\">Cyanelles</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycobilisome\" title=\"Phycobilisome\">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">Red algae</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Pit_connection\" title=\"Pit connection\">Pit connection</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycobilisome\" title=\"Phycobilisome\">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Hacrobia\" title=\"Hacrobia\">Hacrobia</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">Cryptophyta</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mastigoneme\" title=\"Mastigoneme\">Mastigoneme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Periplast\" title=\"Periplast\">Periplast</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyte\" title=\"Haptophyte\">Haptophyte</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Coccolith\" title=\"Coccolith\">Coccolith</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyte#Characteristics\" title=\"Haptophyte\">Haptonema</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\">General:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mastigoneme\" title=\"Mastigoneme\">Mastigoneme</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">Diatoms</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Frustule\" title=\"Frustule\">Frustule</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">Brown algae</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Lamina_(algae)\" title=\"Lamina (algae)\">Lamina</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pneumatocyst\" title=\"Pneumatocyst\">Pneumatocyst</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Alveolate\" title=\"Alveolate\">Alveolata</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\">General:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Alveolate#Characteristics\" title=\"Alveolate\"> Alveoli</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Trichocyst\" title=\"Trichocyst\">Trichocyst</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">Dinoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinokaryon\" title=\"Dinokaryon\">Dinokaryon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinocyst\" title=\"Dinocyst\">Dinocyst</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Theca\" title=\"Theca\">Theca</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Ciliate\" title=\"Ciliate\">Ciliates</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cilium\" title=\"Cilium\">Cilium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cirrus_(biology)\" title=\"Cirrus (biology)\">Cirrus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Macronucleus\" title=\"Macronucleus\">Macronucleus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Micronucleus\" title=\"Micronucleus\">Micronucleus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexa\" title=\"Apicomplexa\">Apicomplexans</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhoptry\" title=\"Rhoptry\">Rhoptry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apicoplast\" title=\"Apicoplast\">Apicoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Microneme\" title=\"Microneme\">Microneme</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);\"><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizaria\" title=\"Rhizaria\">Rhizaria</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Phytomyxea\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Phytomyxea\" title=\"Phytomyxea\">Phytomyxea</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Nuclear_division\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Nuclear division\">Cruciform division</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#F0E68C;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Excavata\" title=\"Excavata\">Excavate</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#F0E68C;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Kinetoplastida\" title=\"Kinetoplastida\">Kinetoplastids</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Kinetoplast\" title=\"Kinetoplast\">Kinetoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glycosome\" title=\"Glycosome\">Glycosome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#F0E68C;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">Euglenoidea</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Periplast\" title=\"Periplast\">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Amoebozoa\" title=\"Amoebozoa\">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Dictyostelids:\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Dictyostelid\" title=\"Dictyostelid\">Dictyostelids</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Macrocyst\" title=\"Macrocyst\">Macrocyst</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sorocarp\" title=\"Sorocarp\">Sorocarp</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Opisthokont\" title=\"Opisthokont\">Opisthokonta</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Choanoflagellates:\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#D3D3A4;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Choanoflagellate\" title=\"Choanoflagellate\">Choanoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microvillus\" title=\"Microvillus\">Collar of microvilli</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">General</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationsstufe\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"de:Organisationsstufe\">Levels of<br />organization</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Unicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Unicellular\">Unicellular</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">Monadoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Amoeboid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Amoeboid\">Amoeboid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coccoid_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig\" title=\"Coccoid (disambiguation)\">Coccoid</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Colony_(biology)\" title=\"Colony (biology)\">Colonial</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Sensu_stricto\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sensu stricto\">s.s.</a>\n<ul><li>Colonial flagellated</li>\n<li>Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid</li>\n<li>Sarcinoid</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coenobium_(morphology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Coenobium (morphology)\">Coenobial</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>Filamentous/trichal/<a href=\"/wiki/Hyphal\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hyphal\">hyphal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Parenchymatous\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parenchymatous\">Parenchymatous</a></li>\n<li>Pseudoparenchymatous/plektenchymatic</li>\n<li>Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Multinucleated\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multinucleated\">Multinucleated</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Syncytial\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Syncytial\">Syncytial</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coenocytic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Coenocytic\">Coenocytic</a>\n<ul><li>Siphonous</li>\n<li>Siphonocladous</li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Multicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multicellular\">Multicellular</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Sensu_stricto\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sensu stricto\">s.s.</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Tissue_(biology)\" title=\"Tissue (biology)\">tissular</a>/histonal</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_wall#Other_cell_coverings\" title=\"Cell wall\">Cell surface<br />structures</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_membrane\" title=\"Cell membrane\">Simple cell membrane</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mucilage\" title=\"Mucilage\">Mucilage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Scale_(anatomy)\" title=\"Scale (anatomy)\">Scale</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Frustule\" title=\"Frustule\">Frustule</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_wall\" title=\"Cell wall\">Cell wall</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Lorica_(biology)\" title=\"Lorica (biology)\">Lorica</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Skeleton\" title=\"Skeleton\">Skeleton</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Test_(biology)\" title=\"Test (biology)\">Test</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Theca\" title=\"Theca\">Theca</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Periplast\" title=\"Periplast\">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Locomotion</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellum\" title=\"Flagellum\">Flagellum</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cilium\" title=\"Cilium\">Cilium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pseudopodia\" title=\"Pseudopodia\">Pseudopodia</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gliding_motility\" title=\"Gliding motility\">Gliding motility</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Mitochondria</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Hydrogenosome\" title=\"Hydrogenosome\">Hydrogenosome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitosome\" title=\"Mitosome\">Mitosome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Nucleus</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Nucleomorph\" title=\"Nucleomorph\">Nucleomorph</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Multinucleate\" title=\"Multinucleate\">Multinucleate cells</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmodium_(life_cycle)\" title=\"Plasmodium (life cycle)\">Plasmodium</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dikaryon\" title=\"Dikaryon\">Dikaryon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokaryon\" title=\"Heterokaryon\">Heterokaryon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitosis\" title=\"Mitosis\">Mitosis in protists</a>\n<ul><li>Open</li>\n<li>Closed</li>\n<li>Orthomitosis</li>\n<li>Pleuromitosis</li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Meiosis#Occurrence_in_eukaryotic_life_cycles\" title=\"Meiosis\">Meiosis in protists</a>\n<ul><li>Gametic</li>\n<li>Zygotic</li>\n<li>Sporic</li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Other</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbial_cyst\" title=\"Microbial cyst\">Cyst</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cytostome\" title=\"Cytostome\">Cytostome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fimbria (bacteriology)\">Fimbriae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Extrusome\" title=\"Extrusome\">Extrusome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Contractile_vacuole\" title=\"Contractile vacuole\">Contractile vacuole</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus\" title=\"Eyespot apparatus\">Eyespot apparatus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pyrenoid\" title=\"Pyrenoid\">Pyrenoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Axostyle\" title=\"Axostyle\">Axostyle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mastigont_system\" title=\"Mastigont system\">Mastigont system</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Ecology and<br />physiology</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbial_ecology\" title=\"Microbial ecology\">Microbial ecology</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbial_biogeography\" title=\"Microbial biogeography\">Microbial biogeography</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Lourens_Baas_Becking#Baas_Becking_hypothesis\" title=\"Lourens Baas Becking\">Baas-Becking hypothesis</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Developmental_biology\" title=\"Developmental biology\">Development</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Reproduction\" title=\"Reproduction\">Reproduction</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Biological_life_cycle\" title=\"Biological life cycle\">Life cycles</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fertilization#Fertilization_in_protists\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fertilization\">Fertilization</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>Nutrition: <a href=\"/wiki/Autotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Autotrophy\">Autotrophy</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Phototrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phototrophy\">Phototrophy</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterotrophy\">Heterotrophy</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Phagotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phagotrophy\">Phagotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Osmotrophy\" title=\"Osmotrophy\">Osmotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition\" title=\"Saprotrophic nutrition\">Saprotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Parasitism\" title=\"Parasitism\">Parasitism</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Biotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Biotrophy\">Biotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Necrotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Necrotrophy\">Necrotrophy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mixotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mixotrophy\">Mixotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Auxotrophy\" title=\"Auxotrophy\">Auxotrophy</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\"/><style data-mw-deduplicate=\"TemplateStyles:r1038841319\">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\"/></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox authority-control\" aria-labelledby=\"Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><div id=\"Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:Authority_control\" title=\"Help:Authority control\">Authority control</a> <a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers\" title=\"Edit this at Wikidata\"><img alt=\"Edit this at Wikidata\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"10\" height=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: text-top\" class=\"noprint\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"20\" data-file-height=\"20\" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">National</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Algues\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119530776\">France</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Algues\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119530776\">BnF data</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4001173-2\">Germany</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007293935305171\">Israel</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85003405\">United States</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000050628&P_CON_LNG=ENG\">Latvia</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571433\">Japan</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"\u0159asy\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116889&CON_LNG=ENG\">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=27344\">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>",
"request": "Algae",
"cleaned_content": "<div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms</div>\n</style><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Alga\" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig\" title=\"Algae (disambiguation)\">Algae (disambiguation)</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Alga_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig\" title=\"Alga (disambiguation)\">Alga (disambiguation)</a>.</div>\n<p>\n</style>\n</p>\n<table class=\"infobox biota biota-infobox\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\">Algae<div style=\"font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller;\">An informal term for a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotes</div><div><small>Temporal range: <div class=\"noprint\"><span style=\"display:inline-block;\"></span><span style=\"display:inline-block;\">Mesoproterozoic\u2013present</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Gibson_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gibson-2\">[2]</a></sup> <span style=\"display:inline-block;\"></span><div id=\"Timeline-row\" style=\"margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; font-size:small; position:relative; z-index:0;\">\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,192,141); left:220.50773980251px; width:15.703916975018px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,197,202); left:236.21165677753px; width:10.175705559083px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(242,249,29); left:246.38736233661px; width:3.6126376633897px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(154,217,221); left:220.50773980251px; width:29.492260197491px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Phanerozoic\" title=\"Phanerozoic\"><span style=\"color:black;\">Pha.</span></a></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,67,112); left:113.15766426554px; width:49.263240864406px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,180,98); left:162.42090512995px; width:32.84216057627px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,179,66); left:195.26306570622px; width:25.244674096293px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,53,99); left:113.15766426554px; width:107.35007553697px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Proterozoic\" title=\"Proterozoic\"><span style=\"color:black;\">Proterozoic</span></a></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(218,3,127); left:31.052262824864px; width:21.894773717514px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(244,68,159); left:52.947036542377px; width:21.894773717514px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,104,169); left:74.841810259891px; width:21.894773717514px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(249,155,193); left:96.736583977405px; width:16.421080288135px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,4,127); left:31.052262824864px; width:82.105401440676px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Archean\" title=\"Archean\"><span style=\"color:black;\">Archean</span></a></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:31.052262824864px;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:31.052262824864px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Hadean\" title=\"Hadean\"><span style=\"color:white;\">Had'n</span></a></div>\n<div id=\"end-border\" style=\"position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:249px\"></div><div style=\"margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;\"><div style=\"position:absolute; height:8px; left:162.42090512995px; width:87.579094870055px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:8px; left:162.42090512995px; width:87.579094870055px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;\"></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:163.42090512995px; width:85.579094870055px; background-color:#6c3;\"></div>\n</div>\n</div></div></small></div>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:NSW_seabed_1.JPG\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/220px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/330px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/440px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG 2x\" data-file-width=\"4000\" data-file-height=\"3000\" /></a>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\">A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/330px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/440px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1650\" data-file-height=\"1650\" /></a>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"image-section\">A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\"><a href=\"/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)\" title=\"Taxonomy (biology)\">Scientific classification</a><span class=\"plainlinks\" style=\".. style ..\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Life\" title=\"Edit this classification\"><img alt=\"Edit this classification\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" data-file-width=\"16\" data-file-height=\"16\" /></a></span>\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\">Groups included\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Viridiplantae\" title=\"Viridiplantae\">Viridiplantae</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mesostigmatophyceae\" title=\"Mesostigmatophyceae\">Mesostigmatophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorokybophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorokybophyceae\">Chlorokybophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophyta\">Rhodophyta</a> (red algae)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Glaucophyta\">Glaucophyta</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorarachniophytes\">Chlorarachniophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">Euglenids</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokonts</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bacillariophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bacillariophyceae\">Bacillariophyceae</a> (Diatoms)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Axodine\" title=\"Axodine\">Axodines</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bolidomonas\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bolidomonas\">Bolidomonas</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eustigmatophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eustigmatophyceae\">Eustigmatophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phaeophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phaeophyceae\">Phaeophyceae</a> (brown algae)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chrysophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chrysophyceae\">Chrysophyceae</a> (golden algae)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Raphidophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Raphidophyceae\">Raphidophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Synurophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Synurophyceae\">Synurophyceae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Xanthophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Xanthophyceae\">Xanthophyceae</a> (yellow-green algae)</li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cryptophyta\">Cryptophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellata\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dinoflagellata\">Dinoflagellata</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophyta\">Haptophyta</a></li></ul>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-header\" style=\"background:rgb(245,215,255);\">Typically excluded:\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"section-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">Cyanobacteria</a> (blue-green algae)</li></ul>\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<p><b>Algae</b> (<span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><small><a href=\"/wiki/British_English\" title=\"British English\">UK</a>: </small><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:IPA/English\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/\u02c8/: primary stress follows\">\u02c8</span><span title=\"/\u00e6/: 'a' in 'bad'\">\u00e6</span><span title=\"'l' in 'lie'\">l</span><span title=\"/\u0261/: 'g' in 'guy'\">\u0261</span><span title=\"/i\u02d0/: 'ee' in 'fleece'\">i\u02d0</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><small><a href=\"/wiki/American_English\" title=\"American English\">US</a>: </small><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:IPA/English\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/\u02c8/: primary stress follows\">\u02c8</span><span title=\"/\u00e6/: 'a' in 'bad'\">\u00e6</span><span title=\"'l' in 'lie'\">l</span><span title=\"/d\u0292/: 'j' in 'jam'\">d\u0292</span><span title=\"/i\u02d0/: 'ee' in 'fleece'\">i\u02d0</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id=\"cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]</a></sup> singular <b>alga</b> <span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:IPA/English\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/\u02c8/: primary stress follows\">\u02c8</span><span title=\"/\u00e6/: 'a' in 'bad'\">\u00e6</span><span title=\"'l' in 'lie'\">l</span><span title=\"/\u0261/: 'g' in 'guy'\">\u0261</span><span title=\"/\u0259/: 'a' in 'about'\">\u0259</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthesis\" title=\"Photosynthesis\">photosynthetic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryotic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eukaryotic\">eukaryotic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">organisms</a>. It is a <a href=\"/wiki/Polyphyletic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polyphyletic\">polyphyletic</a> grouping that includes species from multiple distinct <a href=\"/wiki/Clade\" title=\"Clade\">clades</a>. Included <a href=\"/wiki/Organism\" title=\"Organism\">organisms</a> range from <a href=\"/wiki/Unicellular_organism\" title=\"Unicellular organism\">unicellular</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">microalgae</a>, such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorella\" title=\"Chlorella\">Chlorella</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Prototheca\" title=\"Prototheca\">Prototheca</a></i> and the <a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">diatoms</a>, to <a href=\"/wiki/Multicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multicellular\">multicellular</a> forms, such as the <a href=\"/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera\" title=\"Macrocystis pyrifera\">giant kelp</a>, a large <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">brown algae</a> which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and <a href=\"/wiki/Autotrophic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Autotrophic\">autotrophic</a> (they generate food internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Stoma\" title=\"Stoma\">stomata</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Xylem\" title=\"Xylem\">xylem</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Phloem\" title=\"Phloem\">phloem</a> that are found in <a href=\"/wiki/Embryophyte\" title=\"Embryophyte\">land plants</a>. The largest and most complex marine algae are called <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">seaweeds</a>, while the most complex freshwater forms are the <i><a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a></i>, a <a href=\"/wiki/Phylum\" title=\"Phylum\">division</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a> which includes, for example, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Spirogyra\" title=\"Spirogyra\">Spirogyra</a></i> and <a href=\"/wiki/Stonewort\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stonewort\">stoneworts</a>.\n</p><p>No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae \"have <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophyll</a> as their primary <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment\" title=\"Photosynthetic pigment\">photosynthetic pigment</a> and lack a sterile covering of cells around their <a href=\"/wiki/Gamete\" title=\"Gamete\">reproductive cells</a>\".<sup id=\"cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]</a></sup> Likewise, the colorless <i>Prototheca</i> under <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a></i> are all devoid of any <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophyll</a>. Although <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">cyanobacteria</a> are often referred to as \"blue-green algae\", most authorities exclude all <a href=\"/wiki/Prokaryote\" title=\"Prokaryote\">prokaryotes</a> from the definition of algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-IntroBot_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IntroBot-5\">[5]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Algae constitute a polyphyletic group<sup id=\"cite_ref-IntroBot_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IntroBot-5\">[5]</a></sup> since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their <a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">plastids</a> seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria,<sup id=\"cite_ref-keeling_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-keeling-7\">[7]</a></sup> they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a> derived from <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endosymbiotic theory\">endosymbiotic</a> cyanobacteria. <a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">Diatoms</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">brown algae</a> are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory#Secondary_endosymbiosis\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endosymbiotic theory\">endosymbiotic</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Red_alga\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Red alga\">red alga</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]</a></sup> Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple <a href=\"/wiki/Asexual_reproduction\" title=\"Asexual reproduction\">asexual</a> cell division to complex forms of <a href=\"/wiki/Sexual_reproduction\" title=\"Sexual reproduction\">sexual reproduction</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of <a href=\"/wiki/Bryophyte\" title=\"Bryophyte\">bryophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Rhizoid\" title=\"Rhizoid\">rhizoids</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Non-vascular_plant\" title=\"Non-vascular plant\">non-vascular plants</a>, and the <a href=\"/wiki/Root\" title=\"Root\">roots</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Leaf\" title=\"Leaf\">leaves</a>, and other <a href=\"/wiki/Organ_(biology)\" title=\"Organ (biology)\">organs</a> found in <a href=\"/wiki/Tracheophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Tracheophyte\">tracheophytes</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_plant\" title=\"Vascular plant\">vascular plants</a>). Most are <a href=\"/wiki/Phototroph\" title=\"Phototroph\">phototrophic</a>, although some are <a href=\"/wiki/Mixotroph\" title=\"Mixotroph\">mixotrophic</a>, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by <a href=\"/wiki/Osmotrophy\" title=\"Osmotrophy\">osmotrophy</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Myzocytosis\" title=\"Myzocytosis\">myzotrophy</a>, or <a href=\"/wiki/Phagocytosis\" title=\"Phagocytosis\">phagotrophy</a>. Some unicellular species of <a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a>, many <a href=\"/wiki/Golden_algae\" title=\"Golden algae\">golden algae</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">euglenids</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">dinoflagellates</a>, and other algae have become <a href=\"/wiki/Heterotroph\" title=\"Heterotroph\">heterotrophs</a> (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]</a></sup> Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the <a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexans\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Apicomplexans\">apicomplexans</a>, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed <a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">plastids</a>, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">cyanobacteria</a> that produce <a href=\"/wiki/Oxygen\" title=\"Oxygen\">oxygen</a> as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as <a href=\"/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria\" title=\"Purple sulfur bacteria\">purple</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria\" title=\"Green sulfur bacteria\">green sulfur bacteria</a>. Fossilized filamentous algae from the <a href=\"/wiki/Vindhya\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vindhya\">Vindhya</a> basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.<sup id=\"cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_farming\" title=\"Seaweed farming\">seaweed farming</a> practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in <a href=\"/wiki/East_Asia\" title=\"East Asia\">East Asia</a> food cultures. More modern <a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">algaculture</a> applications extend the <a href=\"/wiki/Edible_seaweed\" title=\"Edible seaweed\">food traditions</a> for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for <a href=\"/wiki/Bioremediation\" title=\"Bioremediation\">bioremediation</a> or pollution control, transforming sunlight into <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_fuel\" title=\"Algae fuel\">algae fuels</a> or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_sequestration\" title=\"Carbon sequestration\">carbon sequestration</a> in order to <a href=\"/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation\" title=\"Climate change mitigation\">mitigate climate change</a> while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.<sup id=\"cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<div id=\"toc\" class=\"toc\" role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"mw-toc-heading\"><input type=\"checkbox\" role=\"button\" id=\"toctogglecheckbox\" class=\"toctogglecheckbox\" style=\"display:none\" /><div class=\"toctitle\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><h2 id=\"mw-toc-heading\">Contents</h2><span class=\"toctogglespan\"><label class=\"toctogglelabel\" for=\"toctogglecheckbox\"></label></span></div>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-1\"><a href=\"#Etymology_and_study\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Etymology and study</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-2\"><a href=\"#Classifications\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Classifications</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-3\"><a href=\"#Algal_characteristics_basic_to_primary_classification\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Algal characteristics basic to primary classification</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-4\"><a href=\"#History_of_classification_of_algae\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">2.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">History of classification of algae</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-5\"><a href=\"#Relationship_to_land_plants\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Relationship to land plants</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-6\"><a href=\"#Morphology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Morphology</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-7\"><a href=\"#Turfs\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">4.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Turfs</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-8\"><a href=\"#Physiology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Physiology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-9\"><a href=\"#Symbiotic_algae\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Symbiotic algae</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-10\"><a href=\"#Lichens\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Lichens</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-11\"><a href=\"#Coral_reefs\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Coral reefs</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-12\"><a href=\"#Sea_sponges\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">6.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Sea sponges</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-13\"><a href=\"#Life_cycle\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Life cycle</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-14\"><a href=\"#Numbers\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Numbers</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-15\"><a href=\"#Distribution\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Distribution</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-16\"><a href=\"#Ecology\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Ecology</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-17\"><a href=\"#Cultural_associations\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">11</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cultural associations</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-18\"><a href=\"#Cultivation\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Cultivation</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-19\"><a href=\"#Seaweed_farming\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Seaweed farming</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-20\"><a href=\"#Bioreactors\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">12.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bioreactors</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-21\"><a href=\"#Uses\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Uses</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-22\"><a href=\"#Agar\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Agar</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-23\"><a href=\"#Alginates\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Alginates</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-24\"><a href=\"#Energy_source\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Energy source</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-25\"><a href=\"#Fertilizer\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Fertilizer</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-26\"><a href=\"#Nutrition\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Nutrition</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-27\"><a href=\"#Pollution_control\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Pollution control</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-28\"><a href=\"#Polymers\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Polymers</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-29\"><a href=\"#Bioremediation\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bioremediation</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-30\"><a href=\"#Pigments\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Pigments</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-31\"><a href=\"#Stabilizing_substances\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">13.10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Stabilizing substances</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-32\"><a href=\"#Additional_images\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">14</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Additional images</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-33\"><a href=\"#See_also\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">15</span> <span class=\"toctext\">See also</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-34\"><a href=\"#References\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">16</span> <span class=\"toctext\">References</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-35\"><a href=\"#Bibliography\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Bibliography</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-36\"><a href=\"#General\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">General</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-2 tocsection-37\"><a href=\"#Regional\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Regional</span></a>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-38\"><a href=\"#Britain_and_Ireland\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.1</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Britain and Ireland</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-39\"><a href=\"#Australia\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.2</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Australia</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-40\"><a href=\"#New_Zealand\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.3</span> <span class=\"toctext\">New Zealand</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-41\"><a href=\"#Europe\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.4</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Europe</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-42\"><a href=\"#Arctic\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.5</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Arctic</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-43\"><a href=\"#Greenland\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.6</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Greenland</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-44\"><a href=\"#Faroe_Islands\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.7</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Faroe Islands</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-45\"><a href=\"#Canary_Islands\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.8</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Canary Islands</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-46\"><a href=\"#Morocco\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.9</span> <span class=\"toctext\">Morocco</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-47\"><a href=\"#South_Africa\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.10</span> <span class=\"toctext\">South Africa</span></a></li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-3 tocsection-48\"><a href=\"#North_America\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">17.2.11</span> <span class=\"toctext\">North America</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li class=\"toclevel-1 tocsection-49\"><a href=\"#External_links\"><span class=\"tocnumber\">18</span> <span class=\"toctext\">External links</span></a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Etymology_and_study\">Etymology and study</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=1\" title=\"Edit section: Etymology and study\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>The singular <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">alga</i></span> is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English.<sup id=\"cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Etymology\" title=\"Etymology\">etymology</a> is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">alg\u0113re</i></span>, 'be cold',<sup id=\"cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]</a></sup> no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">alliga</i></span>, 'binding, entwining'.<sup id=\"cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The <a href=\"/wiki/Ancient_Greek\" title=\"Ancient Greek\">Ancient Greek</a> word for 'seaweed' was <span title=\"Greek-language text\"><span lang=\"el\">\u03c6\u1fe6\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2</span></span> (<span title=\"Greek-language text\"><i lang=\"el-Latn\">ph\u0177kos</i></span>), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, <span title=\"Latin-language text\"><i lang=\"la\">f\u016bcus</i></span>, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the <a href=\"/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew\" title=\"Biblical Hebrew\">Biblical</a> <span title=\"Hebrew-language text\"><span lang=\"he\" dir=\"rtl\">\u05e4\u05d5\u05da</span></span> (<span title=\"Hebrew-language text\"><i lang=\"he-Latn\">p\u016bk</i></span>), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a <a href=\"/wiki/Kohl_(cosmetics)\" title=\"Kohl (cosmetics)\">cosmetic eye-shadow</a> used by the <a href=\"/wiki/Ancient_Egypt\" title=\"Ancient Egypt\">ancient Egyptians</a> and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.<sup id=\"cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either <a href=\"/wiki/Phycology\" title=\"Phycology\">phycology</a> or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name <i>f\u016bcus</i> appears in a number of <a href=\"/wiki/Taxon\" title=\"Taxon\">taxa</a>.\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classifications\">Classifications</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=2\" title=\"Edit section: Classifications\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Algae\">wikispecies:Algae</a></div><p>The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are <b>-<i>phyta</i></b> for division, <i>-phyceae</i> for class, <i>-phycideae</i> for subclass, <i>-ales</i> for order, <i>-inales</i> for suborder, <i>-aceae</i> for family, <i>-oidease</i> for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species.\n</p><h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Algal_characteristics_basic_to_primary_classification\">Algal characteristics basic to primary classification</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=3\" title=\"Edit section: Algal characteristics basic to primary classification\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_(biology)\" title=\"Cell (biology)\">cell</a> structure.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_classification_of_algae\">History of classification of algae</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=4\" title=\"Edit section: History of classification of algae\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Although <a href=\"/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Carolus Linnaeus\">Carolus Linnaeus</a> (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class <a href=\"/wiki/Cryptogam\" title=\"Cryptogam\">Cryptogamia</a>, he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae.\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Jean_Pierre_%C3%89tienne_Vaucher\" title=\"Jean Pierre \u00c9tienne Vaucher\">Jean Pierre \u00c9tienne Vaucher</a> (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While <a href=\"/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Friedrich_Link\" title=\"Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link\">Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link</a> (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, <a href=\"/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey\" title=\"William Henry Harvey\">William Henry Harvey</a> (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. <a href=\"/wiki/J._G._Agardh\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"J. G. Agardh\">J. G. Agardh</a> (1849\u20131898) divided algae into six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a division created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, <a href=\"/wiki/Adolf_Engler\" title=\"Adolf Engler\">Adolf Engler</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Karl_Anton_Eugen_Prantl\" title=\"Karl Anton Eugen Prantl\">Karl A. E. Prantl</a> (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows:<sup id=\"cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<ol><li>Schizophyta</li>\n<li>Phytosarcodina</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">Flagellata</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">Dinoflagellata</a></li>\n<li>Bacillariophyta</li>\n<li>Conjugatae</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyceae\" title=\"Chlorophyceae\">Chlorophyceae</a></li>\n<li>Charophyta</li>\n<li>Phaeophyceae</li>\n<li>Rhodophyceae</li>\n<li>Eumycetes (<a href=\"/wiki/Fungus\" title=\"Fungus\">Fungi</a>)</li></ol>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/220px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/330px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/440px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1600\" data-file-height=\"1600\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>False-color <a href=\"/wiki/Scanning_electron_micrograph\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Scanning electron micrograph\">scanning electron micrograph</a> of the unicellular <a href=\"/wiki/Coccolithophore\" title=\"Coccolithophore\">coccolithophore</a> <i><a href=\"/wiki/Gephyrocapsa\" title=\"Gephyrocapsa\">Gephyrocapsa</a> oceanica</i></div></div></div>\n<p>The algae contain <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a> that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular <a href=\"/wiki/DNA\" title=\"DNA\">DNA</a> like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">cyanobacteria</a>. However, the exact origin of the <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a> is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Phylogeny\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phylogeny\">Phylogeny</a> based on <a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">plastid</a><sup id=\"cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]</a></sup> not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:\n</p>\n</style>\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">Cyanobacteria</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyte\" title=\"Glaucophyte\">Glaucophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">rhodoplasts\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophytes\">Rhodophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokonts</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">Cryptophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophytes\">Haptophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">chloroplasts\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Euglenophyte\">Euglenophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorophyte\">Chlorophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<table class=\"clade\">\n\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label first\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Charophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Charophyte\">Charophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Embryophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Embryophytes\">Land plants (Embryophyta)</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel\">\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-label\">\n</td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" class=\"clade-leaf\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorarachniophytes\">Chlorarachniophytes</a>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"clade-slabel last\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<table class=\"wikitable\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Supergroup affiliation</th>\n<th>Members</th>\n<th><a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">Endosymbiont</a></th>\n<th>Summary\n</th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Primoplantae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Primoplantae\">Primoplantae</a>/<br /><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophyta\">Rhodophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Glaucophyta\">Glaucophyta</a></li></ul>\n</td>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanobacteria\" title=\"Cyanobacteria\">Cyanobacteria</a>\n</td>\n<td>These algae have \"primary\" <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplasts</a>, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophylls</a> <i>a</i> and <i>c</i> (often), and <a href=\"/wiki/Phycobilin\" title=\"Phycobilin\">phycobilins</a>, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a> is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the <a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a>, and land plants are grouped together as the <a href=\"/wiki/Viridiplantae\" title=\"Viridiplantae\">Viridiplantae</a>.\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Excavata\" title=\"Excavata\">Excavata</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Rhizaria\" title=\"Rhizaria\">Rhizaria</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorarachniophytes\">Chlorarachniophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">Euglenids</a></li></ul>\n</td>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">Green algae</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<p>These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]</a></sup> Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae.\n</p><p><b>Chlorarachniophytes</b>, which belong to the phylum <a href=\"/wiki/Cercozoa\" title=\"Cercozoa\">Cercozoa</a>, contain a small <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleomorph\" title=\"Nucleomorph\">nucleomorph</a>, which is a <a href=\"/wiki/Relict\" title=\"Relict\">relict</a> of the algae's <a href=\"/wiki/Cell_nucleus\" title=\"Cell nucleus\">nucleus</a>.\n</p><p><b>Euglenids</b>, which belong to the phylum <a href=\"/wiki/Euglenozoa\" title=\"Euglenozoa\">Euglenozoa</a>, live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through <a href=\"/wiki/Myzocytosis\" title=\"Myzocytosis\">myzocytosis</a> rather than <a href=\"/wiki/Phagocytosis\" title=\"Phagocytosis\">phagocytosis</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]</a></sup>\n</p>\n</td></tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Halvaria\" title=\"Halvaria\">Halvaria</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Hacrobia\" title=\"Hacrobia\">Hacrobia</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokonts</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">Dinoflagellates</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophyta\">Haptophyta</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">Cryptomonads</a></li></ul>\n</td>\n<td><a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">Red algae</a>\n</td>\n<td>\n<p>These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>, and phycobilins. The shape can vary; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.<sup id=\"cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]</a></sup>\n</p><p>In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a <a href=\"/wiki/Nucleomorph\" title=\"Nucleomorph\">nucleomorph</a> in <a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">cryptomonads</a>, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the <a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">heterokonts</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyta\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haptophyta\">Haptophyta</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">cryptomonads</a> are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.<sup id=\"cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred.<sup id=\"cite_ref-keeling_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-keeling-7\">[7]</a></sup> The <a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexa\" title=\"Apicomplexa\">Apicomplexa</a>, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called <a href=\"/wiki/Apicoplast\" title=\"Apicoplast\">apicoplasts</a>, which are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with <a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">dinoflagellate</a> chloroplasts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-keeling_7-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-keeling-7\">[7]</a></sup>\n</p>\n</td></tr></tbody></table>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_(Titelblatt).png\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/170px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"247\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/255px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/340px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1005\" data-file-height=\"1462\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_(Titelblatt).png\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>title page of <a href=\"/wiki/Samuel_Gottlieb_Gmelin\" title=\"Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin\">Gmelin's</a> <i>Historia Fucorum</i>, dated 1768</div></div></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus\" title=\"Carl Linnaeus\">Linnaeus</a>, in <i><a href=\"/wiki/Species_Plantarum\" title=\"Species Plantarum\">Species Plantarum</a></i> (1753),<sup id=\"cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]</a></sup> the starting point for modern <a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature\" title=\"Botanical nomenclature\">botanical nomenclature</a>, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]</a></sup> In <i><a href=\"/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae\" title=\"10th edition of Systema Naturae\">Systema Naturae</a></i>, Linnaeus described the genera <i><a href=\"/wiki/Volvox\" title=\"Volvox\">Volvox</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Corallina\" title=\"Corallina\">Corallina</a></i>, and a species of <i><a href=\"/wiki/Acetabularia\" title=\"Acetabularia\">Acetabularia</a></i> (as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Madrepora\" title=\"Madrepora\">Madrepora</a></i>), among the animals.\n</p><p>In 1768, <a href=\"/wiki/Samuel_Gottlieb_Gmelin\" title=\"Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin\">Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin</a> (1744\u20131774) published the <i>Historia Fucorum</i>, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_biology\" title=\"Marine biology\">marine biology</a> to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.<sup id=\"cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey\" title=\"William Henry Harvey\">W. H. Harvey</a> (1811\u20131866) and <a href=\"/wiki/Lamouroux\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Lamouroux\">Lamouroux</a> (1813)<sup id=\"cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Medlin_et_al-30\">[30]</a></sup> were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]</a></sup>\n</p><p>At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., <a href=\"/wiki/Otto_Friedrich_M%C3%BCller\" title=\"Otto Friedrich M\u00fcller\">O. F. M\u00fcller</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg\" title=\"Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg\">Ehrenberg</a>) studying the <a href=\"/wiki/Infusoria\" title=\"Infusoria\">Infusoria</a> (microscopic organisms). Unlike <a href=\"/wiki/Macroalgae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Macroalgae\">macroalgae</a>, which were clearly viewed as plants, <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">microalgae</a> were frequently considered animals because they are often motile.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Medlin_et_al-30\">[30]</a></sup> Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.<sup id=\"cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the \"algae\" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.\n</p><p>Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: <a href=\"/wiki/Cyanophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cyanophyte\">cyanophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Rhodophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhodophyte\">rhodophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chrysophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chrysophyte\">chrysophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Xanthophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Xanthophyte\">xanthophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">bacillariophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Phaeophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phaeophyte\">phaeophytes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate#history\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">pyrrhophytes</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">cryptophytes</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Dinophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dinophyte\">dinophytes</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Euglenophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Euglenophyte\">euglenophytes</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chlorophyte\">chlorophytes</a>. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., <a href=\"/wiki/Bolidophyceae\" title=\"Bolidophyceae\">Bolidophyceae</a>), and others were splintered from older groups: <a href=\"/wiki/Charophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Charophyte\">charophytes</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyte\" title=\"Glaucophyte\">glaucophytes</a> (from chlorophytes), many <a href=\"/wiki/Heterokontophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokontophyte\">heterokontophytes</a> (e.g., <a href=\"/wiki/Synurophyceae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Synurophyceae\">synurophytes</a> from chrysophytes, or <a href=\"/wiki/Eustigmatophyte\" title=\"Eustigmatophyte\">eustigmatophytes</a> from xanthophytes), <a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyte\" title=\"Haptophyte\">haptophytes</a> (from chrysophytes), and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorarachniophyte\" title=\"Chlorarachniophyte\">chlorarachniophytes</a> (from xanthophytes).\n</p><p>With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in <a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">Protista</a>, later also abandoned in favour of <a href=\"/wiki/Eukaryota\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Eukaryota\">Eukaryota</a>. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as <a href=\"/wiki/Protozoa\" title=\"Protozoa\">protozoans</a> in the past still have duplicated classifications (see <a href=\"/wiki/Ambiregnal_protist\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ambiregnal protist\">ambiregnal protists</a>).\n</p><p>Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae <i><a href=\"/wiki/Prototheca\" title=\"Prototheca\">Prototheca</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Helicosporidium\" title=\"Helicosporidium\">Helicosporidium</a></i>, parasites of metazoans, or <i><a href=\"/wiki/Cephaleuros\" title=\"Cephaleuros\">Cephaleuros</a></i>, parasites of plants) were originally classified as <a href=\"/wiki/Fungi\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fungi\">fungi</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Sporozoan\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sporozoan\">sporozoans</a>, or <a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">protistans</a> of <i><a href=\"/wiki/Incertae_sedis\" title=\"Incertae sedis\">incertae sedis</a></i>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]</a></sup> while others (e.g., the green algae <i><a href=\"/wiki/Phyllosiphon\" title=\"Phyllosiphon\">Phyllosiphon</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Rhodochytrium\" title=\"Rhodochytrium\">Rhodochytrium</a></i>, parasites of plants, or the red algae <i><a href=\"/wiki/Pterocladiophila\" title=\"Pterocladiophila\">Pterocladiophila</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Gelidiocolax_mammillatus&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Gelidiocolax mammillatus (page does not exist)\">Gelidiocolax mammillatus</a></i>, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates <i><a href=\"/wiki/Oodinium\" title=\"Oodinium\">Oodinium</a></i>, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorochytrium\" title=\"Chlorochytrium\">Chlorochytrium</a></i>), but later were seen as <a href=\"/wiki/Endophytic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endophytic\">endophytic</a> algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]</a></sup> Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Beggiatoa\" title=\"Beggiatoa\">Beggiatoa</a></i>) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the <a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexan\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Apicomplexan\">apicomplexans</a> are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Relationship_to_land_plants\">Relationship to land plants</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=5\" title=\"Edit section: Relationship to land plants\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chara_(alga)\" title=\"Chara (alga)\">Chara</a></i> almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic <a href=\"/wiki/Alternation_of_generations\" title=\"Alternation of generations\">alternation of generations</a> and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.<sup id=\"cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Morphology\">Morphology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=6\" title=\"Edit section: Morphology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/170px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"269\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/255px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/340px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1455\" data-file-height=\"2301\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>The <a href=\"/wiki/Kelp_forest\" title=\"Kelp forest\">kelp forest</a> exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus</div></div></div>\n<p>A range of algal <a href=\"/wiki/Morphology_(biology)\" title=\"Morphology (biology)\">morphologies</a> is exhibited, and <a href=\"/wiki/Convergent_evolution\" title=\"Convergent evolution\">convergence</a> of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular <a href=\"/wiki/Thallus\" title=\"Thallus\">thalli</a> are the <a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">reds</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">browns</a>, and some <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">chlorophytes</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup> Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the <a href=\"/wiki/Florideophyceae\" title=\"Florideophyceae\">florideophyte</a> reds, various browns, and the charophytes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup> The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the <a href=\"/wiki/Horsetail\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Horsetail\">horsetails</a> occur at the nodes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Conceptacle\" title=\"Conceptacle\">Conceptacles</a> are another <a href=\"/wiki/Polyphyletic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Polyphyletic\">polyphyletic</a> trait; they appear in the <a href=\"/wiki/Coralline_algae\" title=\"Coralline algae\">coralline algae</a> and the <a href=\"/wiki/Hildenbrandiales\" title=\"Hildenbrandiales\">Hildenbrandiales</a>, as well as the browns.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Xiao2004-39\">[39]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Most of the simpler algae are <a href=\"/wiki/Unicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Unicellular\">unicellular</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">flagellates</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Amoeboid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Amoeboid\">amoeboids</a>, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_life_cycle\" title=\"Biological life cycle\">lifecycle</a> of a species, are\n</p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Colony_(biology)\" title=\"Colony (biology)\">Colonial</a>: small, regular groups of motile cells</li>\n<li>Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in <a href=\"/wiki/Mucilage\" title=\"Mucilage\">mucilage</a></li>\n<li>Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls</li>\n<li>Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage</li>\n<li>Filamentous: a string of connected nonmotile cells, sometimes branching</li>\n<li>Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues</li></ul>\n<p>In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,<sup id=\"cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]</a></sup>\u2014some of which may reach 50 m in length (<a href=\"/wiki/Kelp\" title=\"Kelp\">kelps</a>)<sup id=\"cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]</a></sup>\u2014the red algae,<sup id=\"cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]</a></sup> and the green algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]</a></sup> The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see <a href=\"/wiki/Charales\" title=\"Charales\">Charales</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Charophyta\" title=\"Charophyta\">Charophyta</a>), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the <a href=\"/wiki/Embryophyte\" title=\"Embryophyte\">Embryophytes</a>.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Turfs\">Turfs</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=7\" title=\"Edit section: Turfs\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like <a href=\"/wiki/Coral_reef\" title=\"Coral reef\">corals</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Kelp_forest#Kelp\" title=\"Kelp forest\">kelps</a>, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed:<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<ul><li>Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup></li>\n<li>Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup></li>\n<li>Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm).<sup id=\"cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\">[44]</a></sup></li></ul>\n</style><table class=\"box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content\" role=\"presentation\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"mbox-image\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"[icon]\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"20\" height=\"14\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"44\" data-file-height=\"31\" /></a></td><td class=\"mbox-text\"><div class=\"mbox-text-span\">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=\">adding to it</a>. <span class=\"date-container\"><i>(<span class=\"date\">February 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physiology\">Physiology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=8\" title=\"Edit section: Physiology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>Many algae, particularly members of the <a href=\"/wiki/Characeae\" title=\"Characeae\">Characeae</a> species,<sup id=\"cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]</a></sup> have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, <a href=\"/wiki/Osmoregulation\" title=\"Osmoregulation\">osmoregulation</a>, <a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Turgor_regulation&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Turgor regulation (page does not exist)\">turgor regulation</a>,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\"><span title=\"how is turgor regulation distinct from osmoregulation (June 2021)\">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Salt_tolerance\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Salt tolerance\">salt tolerance</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Cytoplasmic_streaming\" title=\"Cytoplasmic streaming\">cytoplasmic streaming</a>, and the generation of <a href=\"/wiki/Action_potentials\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Action potentials\">action potentials</a>.\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Phytohormone\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phytohormone\">Phytohormones</a> are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.<sup id=\"cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symbiotic_algae\">Symbiotic algae</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=9\" title=\"Edit section: Symbiotic algae\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>Some species of algae form <a href=\"/wiki/Symbiosis\" title=\"Symbiosis\">symbiotic relationships</a> with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Lichens\">Lichens</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=10\" title=\"Edit section: Lichens\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\">Lichen</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_(stevefe).jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/220px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"170\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/330px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/440px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"2047\" data-file-height=\"1581\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_(stevefe).jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Rock lichens in Ireland</div></div></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\">Lichens</a> are defined by the <a href=\"/wiki/International_Association_for_Lichenology\" title=\"International Association for Lichenology\">International Association for Lichenology</a> to be \"an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic <a href=\"/wiki/Symbiont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Symbiont\">symbiont</a> resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure\".<sup id=\"cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]</a></sup> The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the <a href=\"/wiki/Ascomycota\" title=\"Ascomycota\">Ascomycota</a> with a few from the <a href=\"/wiki/Basidiomycota\" title=\"Basidiomycota\">Basidiomycota</a>. In nature, they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate.<sup id=\"cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]</a></sup> One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence \"photobiont\" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]</a></sup> The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.<sup id=\"cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]</a></sup>\n</p><p><a href=\"/wiki/Trentepohlia_(alga)\" title=\"Trentepohlia (alga)\">Trentepohlia</a> is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Aerophyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Aerophyte\">aerophytes</a></i>) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Coral_reefs\">Coral reefs</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=11\" title=\"Edit section: Coral reefs\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Coral\" title=\"Coral\">Coral</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Coral_reef\" title=\"Coral reef\">Coral reef</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Symbiodinium\" title=\"Symbiodinium\">Symbiodinium</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Coral_Reef.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/220px-Coral_Reef.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/330px-Coral_Reef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/440px-Coral_Reef.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"3593\" data-file-height=\"2400\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Coral_Reef.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Floridian coral reef</div></div></div> <p><a href=\"/wiki/Coral_reef\" title=\"Coral reef\">Coral reefs</a> are accumulated from the <a href=\"/wiki/Calcareous\" title=\"Calcareous\">calcareous</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Exoskeleton\" title=\"Exoskeleton\">exoskeletons</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_invertebrate\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Marine invertebrate\">marine invertebrates</a> of the order <a href=\"/wiki/Scleractinia\" title=\"Scleractinia\">Scleractinia</a> (stony <a href=\"/wiki/Coral\" title=\"Coral\">corals</a>). These <a href=\"/wiki/Animal#Food_and_energy_sourcing\" title=\"Animal\">animals</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Metabolism\" title=\"Metabolism\">metabolize</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Sugar#Chemistry\" title=\"Sugar\">sugar</a> and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including <a href=\"/wiki/Secretion\" title=\"Secretion\">secretion</a> of the exoskeleton, with water and <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_dioxide\" title=\"Carbon dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a> as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">endosymbionts</a> in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (<a href=\"/wiki/Hermatypic_coral\" title=\"Hermatypic coral\">hermatypic corals</a>) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus <i><a href=\"/wiki/Symbiodinium\" title=\"Symbiodinium\">Symbiodinium</a></i> to be in a healthy condition.<sup id=\"cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]</a></sup> The loss of <i>Symbiodinium</i> from the host is known as <a href=\"/wiki/Coral_bleaching\" title=\"Coral bleaching\">coral bleaching</a>, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.\n</p><h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sea_sponges\">Sea sponges</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=12\" title=\"Edit section: Sea sponges\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"/wiki/Sea_sponge\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sea sponge\">Sea sponge</a></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">Endosymbiontic</a> green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (<i><a href=\"/wiki/Halichondria_panicea\" title=\"Halichondria panicea\">Halichondria panicea</a></i>). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.<sup id=\"cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_cycle\">Life cycle</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=13\" title=\"Edit section: Life cycle\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Conceptacle\" title=\"Conceptacle\">Conceptacle</a></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">Rhodophyta</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyta\" title=\"Chlorophyta\">Chlorophyta</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Heterokontophyta</a>, the three main algal <a href=\"/wiki/Phylum\" title=\"Phylum\">divisions</a>, have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are <a href=\"/wiki/Ploidy\" title=\"Ploidy\">diploid</a>, a sexual phase where the cells are <a href=\"/wiki/Haploid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Haploid\">haploid</a>, followed by fusion of the male and female <a href=\"/wiki/Gamete\" title=\"Gamete\">gametes</a>. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a <a href=\"/wiki/Zygote\" title=\"Zygote\">zygote</a>. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]</a></sup> Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during <a href=\"/wiki/Meiosis\" title=\"Meiosis\">meiosis</a>, a key stage of the sexual cycle.<sup id=\"cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]</a></sup> However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction.<sup id=\"cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]</a></sup> Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Numbers\">Numbers</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=14\" title=\"Edit section: Numbers\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/220px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"154\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/330px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/440px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"3908\" data-file-height=\"2741\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Algae on coastal rocks at <a href=\"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%A2%AF%E5%9D%AA\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"zh:\u77f3\u68af\u576a\">Shihtiping</a> in <a href=\"/wiki/Taiwan\" title=\"Taiwan\">Taiwan</a></div></div></div>\n<p>The <i>Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium</i> (located in the <a href=\"/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History\" title=\"National Museum of Natural History\">National Museum of Natural History</a>) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).<sup id=\"cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]</a></sup> Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,<sup id=\"cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]</a></sup> in the <a href=\"/wiki/British_Isles\" title=\"British Isles\">British Isles</a> the <i>UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report</i> estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: \"It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...\"\n</p><p>Regional and group estimates have been made, as well:\n</p>\n<ul><li>5,000\u20135,500 species of red algae worldwide</li>\n<li>\"some 1,300 in Australian Seas\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]</a></sup></li>\n<li>400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,<sup id=\"cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]</a></sup> and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.<sup id=\"cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]</a></sup> Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in <a href=\"/wiki/List_of_seaweeds_of_South_Africa_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig\" title=\"List of seaweeds of South Africa (disambiguation)\">List of seaweeds of South Africa</a>. These exclude <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a> and crustose corallines.</li>\n<li>669 marine species from California (US)<sup id=\"cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]</a></sup></li>\n<li>642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland<sup id=\"cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<p>and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.\n</p><p>The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.<sup id=\"cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Distribution\">Distribution</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=15\" title=\"Edit section: Distribution\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of <a href=\"/wiki/Phytogeography\" title=\"Phytogeography\">phytogeography</a> in the mid-19th century.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of <a href=\"/wiki/Spore\" title=\"Spore\">spores</a> analogously to the dispersal of <a href=\"/wiki/Plantae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Plantae\">Plantae</a> by <a href=\"/wiki/Seed\" title=\"Seed\">seeds</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Spore\" title=\"Spore\">spores</a>. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands.\n</p><p>The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Round8_65-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Round8-65\">[65]</a></sup> Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.<sup id=\"cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]</a></sup>\n</p><p>To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Antarctica\" title=\"Antarctica\">Antarctica</a>, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as \"<a href=\"/wiki/Pacific\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pacific\">Pacific</a> algae\" or \"<a href=\"/wiki/North_Sea\" title=\"North Sea\">North Sea</a> algae\". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Ulva_reticulata&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Ulva reticulata (page does not exist)\">Ulva reticulata</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=U._fasciata&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"U. fasciata (page does not exist)\">U. fasciata</a></i> travelled from the mainland to <a href=\"/wiki/Hawaii\" title=\"Hawaii\">Hawaii</a> in this manner.\n</p><p>Mapping is possible for select species only: \"there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns.\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]</a></sup> For example, <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Clathromorphum&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Clathromorphum (page does not exist)\">Clathromorphum</a></i> is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.<sup id=\"cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]</a></sup> However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the \"difficulties of undertaking such studies.\"<sup id=\"cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ecology\">Ecology</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=16\" title=\"Edit section: Ecology\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/220px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"176\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/330px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/440px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"640\" data-file-height=\"512\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Phytoplankton, <a href=\"/wiki/Lake_Ch%C5%ABzenji\" title=\"Lake Ch\u016bzenji\">Lake Ch\u016bzenji</a></div></div></div>\n<p>Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on <a href=\"/wiki/Snow_algae\" title=\"Snow algae\">snow</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Ice_algae\" title=\"Ice algae\">ice</a>. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under 100 m (330 ft) deep; however, some such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Navicula\" title=\"Navicula\">Navicula</a> pennata</i> have been recorded to a depth of 360 m (1,180 ft).<sup id=\"cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]</a></sup> A type of algae, <i>Ancylonema nordenskioeldii</i>, was found in <a href=\"/wiki/Greenland\" title=\"Greenland\">Greenland</a> in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet.<sup id=\"cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]</a></sup> Same algae was found in the <a href=\"/wiki/Italian_Alps\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Italian Alps\">Italian Alps</a>, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.<sup id=\"cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (<a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>) provide the food base for most marine <a href=\"/wiki/Food_chain\" title=\"Food chain\">food chains</a>. In very high densities (<a href=\"/wiki/Algal_bloom\" title=\"Algal bloom\">algal blooms</a>), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or <a href=\"/wiki/Asphyxiate\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Asphyxiate\">asphyxiate</a> other life forms.\n</p><p>Algae can be used as <a href=\"/wiki/Indicator_organism\" title=\"Indicator organism\">indicator organisms</a> to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Omar2010_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Omar2010-73\">[73]</a></sup> In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Omar2010_73-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Omar2010-73\">[73]</a></sup> To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Omar2010_73-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Omar2010-73\">[73]</a></sup>\n</p><p>On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: <a href=\"/wiki/Aquatic_plant\" title=\"Aquatic plant\">aquatic</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">planktonic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Benthic_zone\" title=\"Benthic zone\">benthic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Marine_biology\" title=\"Marine biology\">marine</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem\" title=\"Freshwater ecosystem\">freshwater</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Lake_ecosystem\" title=\"Lake ecosystem\">lentic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/River_ecosystem\" title=\"River ecosystem\">lotic</a>),<sup id=\"cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Terrestrial_plant\" title=\"Terrestrial plant\">terrestrial</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Aerobiology\" title=\"Aerobiology\">aerial</a> (subaerial),<sup id=\"cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Lithophyte\" title=\"Lithophyte\">lithophytic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Halophyte\" title=\"Halophyte\">halophytic</a> (or <a href=\"/wiki/Euryhaline\" title=\"Euryhaline\">euryhaline</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Psammon\" title=\"Psammon\">psammon</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Thermophile\" title=\"Thermophile\">thermophilic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Psychrophile\" title=\"Psychrophile\">cryophilic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Epibiont\" title=\"Epibiont\">epibiont</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Epiphyte\" title=\"Epiphyte\">epiphytic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Epizoic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Epizoic\">epizoic</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Endosymbiont\" title=\"Endosymbiont\">endosymbiont</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Endophytic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Endophytic\">endophytic</a>, endozoic), <a href=\"/wiki/Parasitic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parasitic\">parasitic</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Calcareous\" title=\"Calcareous\">calcifilic</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\">lichenic</a> (phycobiont).<sup id=\"cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cultural_associations\">Cultural associations</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=17\" title=\"Edit section: Cultural associations\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<p>In <a href=\"/wiki/Classical_Chinese\" title=\"Classical Chinese\">classical Chinese</a>, the word <span title=\"Chinese-language text\"><span lang=\"zh\"><a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:\u85fb\">\u85fb</a></span></span> is used both for \"algae\" and (in the modest tradition of the <a href=\"/wiki/Scholar-official\" title=\"Scholar-official\">imperial scholars</a>) for \"literary talent\". The third island in <a href=\"/wiki/Kunming_Lake\" title=\"Kunming Lake\">Kunming Lake</a> beside the <a href=\"/wiki/Summer_Palace\" title=\"Summer Palace\">Summer Palace</a> in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao (\u85fb\u9452\u5802\u5cf6), which thus simultaneously means \"Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall\" and \"Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent\".\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cultivation\">Cultivation</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=18\" title=\"Edit section: Cultivation\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"excerpt-block\"></style><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref\">This section is an excerpt from <a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">Algaculture</a>.<span class=\"mw-editsection-like plainlinks\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algaculture&action=edit\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></div><div class=\"excerpt\">\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">Algaculture</a> is a form of <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">aquaculture</a> involving the farming of species of algae.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Algaculture_:1_77-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Algaculture_:1-77\">[77]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">microalgae</a> (also referred to as <a href=\"/wiki/Phytoplankton\" title=\"Phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Microphytes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Microphytes\">microphytes</a>, or <a href=\"/wiki/Planktonic_algae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Planktonic algae\">planktonic algae</a>). <a href=\"/wiki/Macroalgae\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Macroalgae\">Macroalgae</a>, commonly known as <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">seaweed</a>, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_scrubber\" title=\"Algae scrubber\">algae scrubbers</a> using upflowing air bubbles in small containers).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)\">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>\n</p><p>Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production of <a href=\"/wiki/Nutraceutical\" title=\"Nutraceutical\">nutraceuticals</a> such as <a href=\"/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acids\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Omega-3 fatty acids\">omega-3 fatty acids</a> (as algal oil)<sup id=\"cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]</a></sup> or natural food <a href=\"/wiki/Colorants\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Colorants\">colorants</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Dyes\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dyes\">dyes</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Food\" title=\"Food\">food</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Fertilizer\" title=\"Fertilizer\">fertilizers</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Bioplastics\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bioplastics\">bioplastics</a>, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/<a href=\"/wiki/Commercial_fish_feed\" title=\"Commercial fish feed\">aquaculture</a> feed, <a href=\"/wiki/Pharmaceuticals\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pharmaceuticals\">pharmaceuticals</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Algal_fuel\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Algal fuel\">algal fuel</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3-81\">[81]</a></sup> and can also be used as a means of <a href=\"/wiki/Pollution_control\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pollution control\">pollution control</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Nature-based_solutions\" title=\"Nature-based solutions\">natural</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Seaweed_farming_and_algae\" title=\"Carbon sequestration\">carbon sequestration</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-82\">[82]</a></sup>\n</p>\nGlobal production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Algaculture_:0_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Algaculture_:0-83\">[83]</a></sup> Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging <a href=\"/wiki/Bioeconomy\" title=\"Bioeconomy\">bioeconomy</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]</a></sup> Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a future <a href=\"/wiki/Healthy_diet\" title=\"Healthy diet\">healthy</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Sustainable_food_system\" title=\"Sustainable food system\">sustainable food system</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213-85\">[85]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-82\">[82]</a></sup></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Seaweed_farming\">Seaweed farming</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=19\" title=\"Edit section: Seaweed farming\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"excerpt-block\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref\">This section is an excerpt from <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_farming\" title=\"Seaweed farming\">Seaweed farming</a>.<span class=\"mw-editsection-like plainlinks\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seaweed_farming&action=edit\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></div><div class=\"excerpt\">\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Eucheuma_farming,_Philippines_(5211726476).jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/300px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"191\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/450px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/600px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1392\" data-file-height=\"884\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Eucheuma_farming,_Philippines_(5211726476).jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Underwater <i><a href=\"/wiki/Eucheuma\" title=\"Eucheuma\">Eucheuma</a></i> farming in the <a href=\"/wiki/Philippines\" title=\"Philippines\">Philippines</a></div></div></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan,_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"A seaweed farmer stands in shallow water, gathering edible seaweed that has grown on a rope\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/300px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/450px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/600px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"4640\" data-file-height=\"3093\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan,_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>A seaweed farmer in <a href=\"/wiki/Nusa_Lembongan\" title=\"Nusa Lembongan\">Nusa Lembongan</a> (Indonesia) gathers edible seaweed that has grown on a rope.</div></div></div>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_farming\" title=\"Seaweed farming\">Seaweed farming</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Kelp\" title=\"Kelp\">kelp</a> farming is the practice of <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">cultivating</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Harvest\" title=\"Harvest\">harvesting</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">seaweed</a>. In its simplest form, farmers gather from natural beds. Alternatively, farmers fully control the crop's <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_life_cycle\" title=\"Biological life cycle\">life cycle</a>. \n</p><p>The seven most cultivated <a href=\"/wiki/Taxa\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Taxa\">taxa</a> are <i><a href=\"/wiki/Eucheuma\" title=\"Eucheuma\">Eucheuma</a></i> spp., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Kappaphycus_alvarezii\" title=\"Kappaphycus alvarezii\">Kappaphycus alvarezii</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Gracilaria\" title=\"Gracilaria\">Gracilaria</a></i> spp., <i><a href=\"/wiki/Saccharina_japonica\" title=\"Saccharina japonica\">Saccharina japonica</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Undaria_pinnatifida\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Undaria pinnatifida\">Undaria pinnatifida</a></i>, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Pyropia\" title=\"Pyropia\">Pyropia</a></i> spp., and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Sargassum_fusiforme\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sargassum fusiforme\">Sargassum fusiforme</a></i>. <i>Eucheuma</i> and <i>K. alvarezii</i> are attractive for <a href=\"/wiki/Carrageenan\" title=\"Carrageenan\">carrageenan</a> (a <a href=\"/wiki/Gelling_agent\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Gelling agent\">gelling agent</a>); <i>Gracilaria</i> is farmed for <a href=\"/wiki/Agar\" title=\"Agar\">agar</a>; the rest are farmed for food.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-86\">[86]</a></sup> Seaweeds are different from <a href=\"/wiki/Mangroves\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mangroves\">mangroves</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Seagrasses\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Seagrasses\">seagrasses</a>, as they are photosynthetic algal organisms<sup id=\"cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]</a></sup> and are non-flowering.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-86\">[86]</a></sup> \n</p><p>The largest seaweed-producing countries are China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Other notable producers include South Korea, North Korea, Japan, Malaysia, and <a href=\"/wiki/Zanzibar\" title=\"Zanzibar\">Zanzibar</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Tanzania\" title=\"Tanzania\">Tanzania</a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann-88\">[88]</a></sup> Seaweed farming has frequently been developed to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_ask_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_ask-89\">[89]</a></sup>\n</p><p>The <a href=\"/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization\" title=\"Food and Agriculture Organization\">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO), reported that world production in 2019 was over 35 million tonnes. North America produced some 23,000 tonnes of wet seaweed. Alaska, Maine, France, and Norway each more than doubled their seaweed production since 2018<i>.</i> As of 2019, seaweed represented 30% of marine <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">aquaculture</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:4_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:4-90\">[90]</a></sup> \n</p>\nSeaweed farming is a <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal\" title=\"Carbon dioxide removal\">carbon negative</a> crop, with a high potential for <a href=\"/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation\" title=\"Climate change mitigation\">climate change mitigation</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:0_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:0-91\">[91]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:1_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:1-92\">[92]</a></sup> The IPCC <a href=\"/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate\" title=\"Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate\">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a> recommends \"further research attention\" as a mitigation tactic.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:2_93-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:2-93\">[93]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"World Wildlife Fund\">World Wildlife Fund</a>, Oceans 2050, and <a href=\"/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy\" title=\"The Nature Conservancy\">The Nature Conservancy</a> publicly support expanded seaweed cultivation.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:4_90-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:4-90\">[90]</a></sup></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bioreactors\">Bioreactors</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=20\" title=\"Edit section: Bioreactors\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div class=\"excerpt-block\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref\">This section is an excerpt from <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_bioreactor\" title=\"Algae bioreactor\">Algae bioreactor</a>.<span class=\"mw-editsection-like plainlinks\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae_bioreactor&action=edit\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></div><div class=\"excerpt\">\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/280px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"280\" height=\"184\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/420px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/560px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1827\" data-file-height=\"1198\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>A close up of microalgae \u2013 <i>Pavlova</i> sp.</div></div></div>\nAn <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_bioreactor\" title=\"Algae bioreactor\">algae bioreactor</a> is used for cultivating <a href=\"/wiki/Microalgae\" title=\"Microalgae\">micro</a> or <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed\" title=\"Seaweed\">macro algae</a>. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of <a href=\"/wiki/Biomass\" title=\"Biomass\">biomass</a> production (as in a <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_cultivator\" title=\"Seaweed cultivator\">seaweed cultivator</a>), <a href=\"/wiki/Wastewater_treatment\" title=\"Wastewater treatment\">wastewater treatment</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_fixation\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Carbon fixation\">CO<sub>2</sub> fixation</a>, or aquarium/pond filtration in the form of an <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_scrubber\" title=\"Algae scrubber\">algae scrubber</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]</a></sup> Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into two categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors, also commonly called <a href=\"/wiki/Photobioreactor\" title=\"Photobioreactor\">photobioreactors</a>, are isolated to varying extents from the atmosphere. Specifically, algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as <a href=\"/wiki/Biodiesel\" title=\"Biodiesel\">biodiesel</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Bioethanol\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bioethanol\">bioethanol</a>, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as <a href=\"/wiki/NOx\" title=\"NOx\">NO<sub>x</sub></a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Carbon_dioxide\" title=\"Carbon dioxide\">CO<sub>2</sub></a> in flue gases of power plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthese\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Photosynthese\">photosynthetic</a> reaction, which is performed by the <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophyll</a>-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible for the algae. The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material.</div></div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=21\" title=\"Edit section: Uses\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Algae_Harvester.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/220px-Algae_Harvester.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/330px-Algae_Harvester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/440px-Algae_Harvester.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"500\" data-file-height=\"375\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Algae_Harvester.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Harvesting algae</div></div></div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Agar\">Agar</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=22\" title=\"Edit section: Agar\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Agar\" title=\"Agar\">Agar</a>, a <a href=\"/wiki/Gelatin\" title=\"Gelatin\">gelatinous</a> substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]</a></sup> It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alginates\">Alginates</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=23\" title=\"Edit section: Alginates\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Alginic_acid\" title=\"Alginic acid\">Alginic acid</a>, or alginate, is extracted from <a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">brown algae</a>. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of <a href=\"/wiki/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\">biotechnology</a> as a <a href=\"/wiki/Biocompatibility\" title=\"Biocompatibility\">biocompatible medium</a> for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. <a href=\"/wiki/Molecular_cuisine\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Molecular cuisine\">Molecular cuisine</a> is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours.\n</p><p>Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of <i><a href=\"/wiki/Macrocystis\" title=\"Macrocystis\">Macrocystis</a></i> are harvested annually in <a href=\"/wiki/New_Mexico\" title=\"New Mexico\">New Mexico</a> for <a href=\"/wiki/Alginic_acid\" title=\"Alginic acid\">alginate</a> extraction and <a href=\"/wiki/Abalone\" title=\"Abalone\">abalone</a> feed.<sup id=\"cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Energy_source\">Energy source</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=24\" title=\"Edit section: Energy source\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_fuel\" title=\"Algae fuel\">Algae fuel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biological_hydrogen_production\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Biological hydrogen production\">Biological hydrogen production</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biohydrogen\" title=\"Biohydrogen\">Biohydrogen</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biodiesel\" title=\"Biodiesel\">Biodiesel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Ethanol_fuel\" title=\"Ethanol fuel\">Ethanol fuel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Butanol_fuel\" title=\"Butanol fuel\">Butanol fuel</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Vegetable_oil\" title=\"Vegetable oil\">Vegetable oil</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Biogas\" title=\"Biogas\">Biogas</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Hydrothermal_Liquefaction\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hydrothermal Liquefaction\">Hydrothermal Liquefaction</a></div>\n<p>To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise,<sup id=\"cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]</a></sup> directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.<sup id=\"cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fertilizer\">Fertilizer</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=25\" title=\"Edit section: Fertilizer\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"/wiki/Seaweed_fertiliser\" title=\"Seaweed fertiliser\">Seaweed fertiliser</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Inisheer_landscape.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/220px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/330px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/440px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1536\" data-file-height=\"1024\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Inisheer_landscape.jpg\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Seaweed-fertilized gardens on <a href=\"/wiki/Inisheer\" title=\"Inisheer\">Inisheer</a></div></div></div>\n<p>For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; <a href=\"/wiki/George_Owen_of_Henllys\" title=\"George Owen of Henllys\">George Owen of Henllys</a> writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in <a href=\"/wiki/South_Wales\" title=\"South Wales\">South Wales</a>:<sup id=\"cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]</a></sup>\n</p>\n</style><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.</p></blockquote>\n<p>Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as <a href=\"/wiki/Fertilizer\" title=\"Fertilizer\">fertilizers</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Soil_conditioner\" title=\"Soil conditioner\">soil conditioners</a>, and livestock feed.<sup id=\"cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]</a></sup> Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. <a href=\"/wiki/Algaculture\" title=\"Algaculture\">Algaculture</a> on a large scale is an important type of <a href=\"/wiki/Aquaculture\" title=\"Aquaculture\">aquaculture</a> in some places. <a href=\"/wiki/Maerl\" title=\"Maerl\">Maerl</a> is commonly used as a soil conditioner.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Nutrition\">Nutrition</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=26\" title=\"Edit section: Nutrition\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"/wiki/Edible_seaweed\" title=\"Edible seaweed\">Edible seaweed</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_powder\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Algae powder\">Algae powder</a></div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:202px;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Dulse.JPG\" class=\"image\"><img src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Dulse.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" data-file-width=\"200\" data-file-height=\"200\" /></a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Dulse.JPG\" class=\"internal\" title=\"Enlarge\"></a></div>Dulse, a type of edible seaweed</div></div></div>\n<p>Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as <a href=\"/wiki/Superfood\" title=\"Superfood\">superfoods</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]</a></sup> They provide many vitamins including: A, <a href=\"/wiki/Thiamine\" title=\"Thiamine\">B<sub>1</sub></a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Riboflavin\" title=\"Riboflavin\">B<sub>2</sub></a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Vitamin_B6\" title=\"Vitamin B6\">B<sub>6</sub></a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Niacin (nutrient)\">niacin</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Vitamin_C\" title=\"Vitamin C\">C</a>, and are rich in <a href=\"/wiki/Iodine\" title=\"Iodine\">iodine</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Potassium\" title=\"Potassium\">potassium</a>, iron, <a href=\"/wiki/Magnesium\" title=\"Magnesium\">magnesium</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Calcium\" title=\"Calcium\">calcium</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]</a></sup> In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as <a href=\"/wiki/Spirulina_(dietary_supplement)\" title=\"Spirulina (dietary supplement)\">spirulina</a>,<sup id=\"cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[105]</a></sup> <i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorella\" title=\"Chlorella\">Chlorella</a></i> and the vitamin-C supplement from <i><a href=\"/wiki/Dunaliella\" title=\"Dunaliella\">Dunaliella</a></i>, high in <a href=\"/wiki/Beta-carotene\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Beta-carotene\">beta-carotene</a>.\n</p><p>Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including <i><a href=\"/wiki/Fat_choy_(vegetable)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fat choy (vegetable)\">fat choy</a></i>, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as <i><a href=\"/wiki/Nori\" title=\"Nori\">nori</a></i> and <i><a href=\"/wiki/Aonori\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Aonori\">aonori</a></i>;<sup id=\"cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]</a></sup> Ireland, <a href=\"/wiki/Dulse\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Dulse\">dulse</a>; <a href=\"/wiki/Chile\" title=\"Chile\">Chile</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Cochayuyo\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cochayuyo\">cochayuyo</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">[107]</a></sup> <a href=\"/wiki/Laver_(seaweed)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Laver (seaweed)\">Laver</a> is used to make laver bread in <a href=\"/wiki/Wales\" title=\"Wales\">Wales</a>, where it is known as <span title=\"Welsh-language text\"><i lang=\"cy\">bara lawr</i></span>; in <a href=\"/wiki/Korea\" title=\"Korea\">Korea</a>, <span title=\"Korean-language text\"><i lang=\"ko-Latn\"><a href=\"/wiki/Gim_(Korean_food)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Gim (Korean food)\">gim</a></i></span>. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to <a href=\"/wiki/British_Columbia\" title=\"British Columbia\">British Columbia</a>, in Hawaii and by the <a href=\"/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people\" title=\"M\u0101ori people\">M\u0101ori</a> of <a href=\"/wiki/New_Zealand\" title=\"New Zealand\">New Zealand</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Sea_lettuce\" title=\"Sea lettuce\">Sea lettuce</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Alaria_esculenta\" title=\"Alaria esculenta\">badderlocks</a> are salad ingredients in <a href=\"/wiki/Scotland\" title=\"Scotland\">Scotland</a>, Ireland, <a href=\"/wiki/Greenland\" title=\"Greenland\">Greenland</a>, and <a href=\"/wiki/Iceland\" title=\"Iceland\">Iceland</a>. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.<sup id=\"cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-110\">[110]</a></sup>\n</p><p>Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine:\n</p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorella\" title=\"Chlorella\">Chlorella</a></i>: This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains <a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthetic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Photosynthetic\">photosynthetic</a> pigments in its <a href=\"/wiki/Chloroplast\" title=\"Chloroplast\">chloroplast</a>. It is high in <a href=\"/wiki/Iron\" title=\"Iron\">iron</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Zinc\" title=\"Zinc\">zinc</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Magnesium\" title=\"Magnesium\">magnesium</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Vitamin_B2\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Vitamin B2\">vitamin B2</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid\" title=\"Omega-3 fatty acid\">Omega-3 fatty acids</a>.</li></ul>\n<p>Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential <a href=\"/wiki/Amino_acid\" title=\"Amino acid\">amino acids</a> the body does not produce on its own<sup id=\"cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Spirulina_(genus)\" title=\"Spirulina (genus)\">Spirulina</a></i>: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a <a href=\"/wiki/Prokaryote\" title=\"Prokaryote\">prokaryote</a>, incorrectly referred to as a \"blue-green alga\"), contains 10% more <a href=\"/wiki/Protein\" title=\"Protein\">protein</a> than <i>Chlorella</i> as well as more <a href=\"/wiki/Thiamine\" title=\"Thiamine\">thiamine</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Copper\" title=\"Copper\">copper</a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<p>The oils from some algae have high levels of <a href=\"/wiki/Unsaturated_fatty_acid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Unsaturated fatty acid\">unsaturated fatty acids</a>. For example, <i><a href=\"/wiki/Parietochloris_incisa\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parietochloris incisa\">Parietochloris incisa</a></i> is very high in <a href=\"/wiki/Arachidonic_acid\" title=\"Arachidonic acid\">arachidonic acid</a>, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.<sup id=\"cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[113]</a></sup> Some varieties of algae favored by <a href=\"/wiki/Vegetarianism\" title=\"Vegetarianism\">vegetarianism</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Veganism\" title=\"Veganism\">veganism</a> contain the long-chain, essential <a href=\"/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid\" title=\"Omega-3 fatty acid\">omega-3 fatty acids</a>, <a href=\"/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid\" title=\"Docosahexaenoic acid\">docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA) and <a href=\"/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid\" title=\"Eicosapentaenoic acid\">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as <a href=\"/wiki/Copepod\" title=\"Copepod\">copepods</a> and are passed up the food chain.<sup id=\"cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[114]</a></sup> Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as <a href=\"/wiki/Flaxseed_oil\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Flaxseed oil\">flaxseed oil</a>, which only contains the short-chain <a href=\"/wiki/Alpha-linolenic_acid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Alpha-linolenic acid\">alpha-linolenic acid</a> (ALA).\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pollution_control\">Pollution control</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=27\" title=\"Edit section: Pollution control\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<ul><li>Sewage can be treated with algae,<sup id=\"cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]</a></sup> reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed.</li>\n<li>Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer.</li>\n<li>Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an <a href=\"/wiki/Algae_scrubber\" title=\"Algae scrubber\">algae scrubber</a>, also known as an algae turf scrubber.<sup id=\"cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">[118]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-119\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-119\">[119]</a></sup></li></ul>\n<p><a href=\"/wiki/Agricultural_Research_Service\" title=\"Agricultural Research Service\">Agricultural Research Service</a> scientists found that 60\u201390% of nitrogen runoff and 70\u2013100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from <a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Manure_effluents&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Manure effluents (page does not exist)\">manure effluents</a> using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an <a href=\"/wiki/Algal_turf_scrubber\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Algal turf scrubber\">algal turf scrubber</a> (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.<sup id=\"cite_ref-120\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-120\">[120]</a></sup> Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Polymers\">Polymers</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=28\" title=\"Edit section: Polymers\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene.<sup id=\"cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]</a></sup> Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops<sup id=\"cite_ref-122\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-122\">[122]</a></sup> and in surf boards.<sup id=\"cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-123\">[123]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bioremediation\">Bioremediation</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=29\" title=\"Edit section: Bioremediation\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The alga <i><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Stichococcus_bacillaris&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Stichococcus bacillaris (page does not exist)\">Stichococcus bacillaris</a></i> has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; <a href=\"/wiki/Biodegradation\" title=\"Biodegradation\">biodegrading</a> the synthetic substance.<sup id=\"cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pigments\">Pigments</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=30\" title=\"Edit section: Pigments\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<p>The natural <a href=\"/wiki/Pigment\" title=\"Pigment\">pigments</a> (<a href=\"/wiki/Carotenoid\" title=\"Carotenoid\">carotenoids</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">chlorophylls</a>) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical <a href=\"/wiki/Dye\" title=\"Dye\">dyes</a> and coloring agents.<sup id=\"cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]</a></sup>\nThe presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly <a href=\"/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography\" title=\"High-performance liquid chromatography\">high-performance liquid chromatography</a>, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.<sup id=\"cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]</a></sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[127]</a></sup>\n</p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stabilizing_substances\">Stabilizing substances</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=31\" title=\"Edit section: Stabilizing substances\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"/wiki/Carrageenan\" title=\"Carrageenan\">Carrageenan</a> and <a href=\"/wiki/Chondrus_crispus\" title=\"Chondrus crispus\">Chondrus crispus</a></div>\n<p>Carrageenan, from the red alga <i>Chondrus crispus</i>, is used as a stabilizer in milk products.\n</p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_images\">Additional images</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=32\" title=\"Edit section: Additional images\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n<ul class=\"gallery mw-gallery-traditional\">\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 235px\"><div style=\"width: 235px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 230px;\"><div style=\"margin:15px auto;\"><a href=\"/wiki/File:Algae_bladder_4290.jpg\" class=\"image\" title=\"Algae bladder\"><img alt=\"Algae bladder\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/200px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/300px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/400px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"2272\" data-file-height=\"1704\" /></a></div></div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\n<p>Algae bladder\n</p>\n\t\t\t</div>\n\t\t</div></li>\n</ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=33\" title=\"Edit section: See also\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n</style><ul role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portalbox portalborder portalright\">\n<li class=\"portalbox-entry\"><span class=\"portalbox-image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/28px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"28\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/43px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/57px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"202\" data-file-height=\"199\" /></span><span class=\"portalbox-link\"><a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Algae\" title=\"Portal:Algae\">Algae portal</a></span></li></ul>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/AlgaeBase\" title=\"AlgaeBase\">AlgaeBase</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/AlgaePARC\" title=\"AlgaePARC\">AlgaePARC</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eutrophication\" title=\"Eutrophication\">Eutrophication</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Iron_fertilization\" title=\"Iron fertilization\">Iron fertilization</a></li>\n<li><i><a href=\"/wiki/Marimo\" title=\"Marimo\">Marimo</a></i> algae</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbiofuels\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Microbiofuels\">Microbiofuels</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Microphyte\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Microphyte\">Microphyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Photobioreactor\" title=\"Photobioreactor\">Photobioreactor</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycotechnology\" title=\"Phycotechnology\">Phycotechnology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant#Algae\" title=\"Plant\">Plant</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Toxoid\" title=\"Toxoid\">Toxoid</a> \u2013 anatoxin</li></ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=34\" title=\"Edit section: References\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n</style><div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"></style><cite id=\"CITEREFButterfield2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Butterfield, N. J. (2000). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386\">\"<i>Bangiomorpha pubescens</i> n. gen., n. sp.: Implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes\"</a>. <i><a href=\"/wiki/Paleobiology_(journal)\" title=\"Paleobiology (journal)\">Paleobiology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (3): 386\u2013404. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2\">10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8373\">0094-8373</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36648568\">36648568</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20070307035241/http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386\">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2007.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Bangiomorpha+pubescens+n.+gen.%2C+n.+sp.%3A+Implications+for+the+evolution+of+sex%2C+multicellularity%2C+and+the+Mesoproterozoic%2FNeoproterozoic+radiation+of+eukaryotes&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=386-404&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36648568%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0094-8373&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Butterfield&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleobiol.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F26%2F3%2F386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gibson-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gibson_2-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite id=\"CITEREFT.M._Gibson2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">T.M. Gibson (2018). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/46/2/135/524864/Precise-age-of-Bangiomorpha-pubescens-dates-the\">\"Precise age of Bangiomorpha pubescens dates the origin of eukaryotic photosynthesis\"</a>. <i><a href=\"/wiki/Geology_(journal)\" title=\"Geology (journal)\">Geology</a></i>. <b>46</b> (2): 135\u2013138. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Geo....46..135G\">2018Geo....46..135G</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG39829.1\">10.1130/G39829.1</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Precise+age+of+Bangiomorpha+pubescens+dates+the+origin+of+eukaryotic+photosynthesis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135-138&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG39829.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Geo....46..135G&rft.au=T.M.+Gibson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fgsa%2Fgeology%2Farticle%2F46%2F2%2F135%2F524864%2FPrecise-age-of-Bangiomorpha-pubescens-dates-the&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/algae\">https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/algae</a></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLee2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lee, R. E. (2008). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/phycology00leer_0\"><i>Phycology</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521367448\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780521367448\"><bdi>9780521367448</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phycology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780521367448&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphycology00leer_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IntroBot-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-IntroBot_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-IntroBot_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFNabors2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nabors, Murray W. (2004). <i>Introduction to Botany</i>. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4416-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4416-5\"><bdi>978-0-8053-4416-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Botany&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-4416-5&rft.aulast=Nabors&rft.aufirst=Murray+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAllaby1992\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Allaby, M., ed. (1992). \"Algae\". <i>The Concise Dictionary of Botany</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Algae&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Dictionary+of+Botany&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-keeling-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-keeling_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-keeling_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-keeling_7-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKeeling2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Keeling, Patrick J. (2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1481\">\"Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts\"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>91</b> (10): 1481\u20131493. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1481\">10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21652304\">21652304</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Diversity+and+evolutionary+history+of+plastids+and+their+hosts&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1481-1493&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1481&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21652304&rft.aulast=Keeling&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.10.1481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPalmerSoltisChase2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Palmer, J. D.; Soltis, D. E.; Chase, M. W. (2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437\">\"The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view\"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>91</b> (10): 1437\u20131445. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437\">10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21652302\">21652302</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+plant+tree+of+life%3A+an+overview+and+some+points+of+view&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1437-1445&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21652302&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Chase%2C+M.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.10.1437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; Department of Botany. <cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm\">\"Algae Research\"</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20100702180840/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2Fintroduction.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Pringsheim, E. G. 1963. <i>Farblose Algen. Ein beitrag zur Evolutionsforschung</i>. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. 471 pp., <a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae#Pringsheim_(1963)\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"species:Algae\">species:Algae#Pringsheim (1963)</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFTartarBouciasBecnelAdams2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tartar, A.; Boucias, D. G.; Becnel, J. J.; Adams, B. J. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02559-0\">\"Comparison of plastid 16S rRNA (rrn 16) genes from Helicosporidium spp.: Evidence supporting the reclassification of Helicosporidia as green algae (Chlorophyta)\"</a>. <i>International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</i>. <b>53</b> (Pt 6): 1719\u20131723. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02559-0\">10.1099/ijs.0.02559-0</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14657099\">14657099</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Systematic+and+Evolutionary+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+plastid+16S+rRNA+%28rrn+16%29+genes+from+Helicosporidium+spp.%3A+Evidence+supporting+the+reclassification+of+Helicosporidia+as+green+algae+%28Chlorophyta%29&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=Pt+6&rft.pages=1719-1723&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fijs.0.02559-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14657099&rft.aulast=Tartar&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Boucias%2C+D.+G.&rft.au=Becnel%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Adams%2C+B.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252Fijs.0.02559-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFFigueroa\u2010MartinezNedelcuSmithReyes\u2010Prieto2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Figueroa\u2010Martinez, F.; Nedelcu, A. M.; Smith, D. R.; Reyes\u2010Prieto, A. (2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5024002\">\"When the lights go out: the evolutionary fate of free\u2010living colorless green algae\"</a>. <i>New Phytologist</i>. <b>206</b> (3): 972\u2013982. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.13279\">10.1111/nph.13279</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5024002\">5024002</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26042246\">26042246</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=When+the+lights+go+out%3A+the+evolutionary+fate+of+free%E2%80%90living+colorless+green+algae&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=972-982&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5024002%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26042246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fnph.13279&rft.aulast=Figueroa%E2%80%90Martinez&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Nedelcu%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Reyes%E2%80%90Prieto%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5024002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBengtsonBelivanovaRasmussenWhitehouse2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bengtson, S.; Belivanova, V.; Rasmussen, B.; Whitehouse, M. (2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2683128\">\"The controversial 'Cambrian' fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older\"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>106</b> (19): 7729\u20137734. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..106.7729B\">2009PNAS..106.7729B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0812460106\">10.1073/pnas.0812460106</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2683128\">2683128</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19416859\">19416859</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=The+controversial+%27Cambrian%27+fossils+of+the+Vindhyan+are+real+but+more+than+a+billion+years+older&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=7729-7734&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2683128%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19416859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0812460106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..106.7729B&rft.aulast=Bengtson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Belivanova%2C+V.&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+B.&rft.au=Whitehouse%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2683128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPaulChandra_ShekharaiahKushwahaSapre2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Paul, Vishal; Chandra Shekharaiah, P. S.; Kushwaha, Shivbachan; Sapre, Ajit; Dasgupta, Santanu; Sanyal, Debanjan (2020). Deb, Dipankar; Dixit, Ambesh; Chandra, Laltu (eds.). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_23\">\"Role of Algae in CO<sub>2</sub> Sequestration Addressing Climate Change: A Review\"</a>. <i>Renewable Energy and Climate Change</i>. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies. Singapore: Springer. <b>161</b>: 257\u2013265. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-32-9578-0_23\">10.1007/978-981-32-9578-0_23</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-329-578-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-981-329-578-0\"><bdi>978-981-329-578-0</bdi></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202902934\">202902934</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+Energy+and+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Role+of+Algae+in+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+Sequestration+Addressing+Climate+Change%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=161&rft.pages=257-265&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202902934%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-32-9578-0_23&rft.isbn=978-981-329-578-0&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Vishal&rft.au=Chandra+Shekharaiah%2C+P.+S.&rft.au=Kushwaha%2C+Shivbachan&rft.au=Sapre%2C+Ajit&rft.au=Dasgupta%2C+Santanu&rft.au=Sanyal%2C+Debanjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-981-32-9578-0_23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book cs1\">\"alga, algae\". <i>Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged with Seven Language Dictionary</i>. Vol. 1. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc. 1986.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=alga%2C+algae&rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Third+New+International+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language+Unabridged+with+Seven+Language+Dictionary&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc&rft.date=1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPartridge1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Partridge, Eric (1983). \"algae\". <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/originsshortetym0000part\"><i>Origins</i></a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780517414255\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780517414255\"><bdi>9780517414255</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=algae&rft.btitle=Origins&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780517414255&rft.aulast=Partridge&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsshortetym0000part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLewisShort1879\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D37%3Aentry%3Dalga\">\"Alga\"</a>. <i>A Latin Dictionary</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alga&rft.btitle=A+Latin+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Charlton+T.&rft.au=Short%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0059%253Aalphabetic%2Bletter%253DA%253Aentry%2Bgroup%253D37%253Aentry%253Dalga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCheyneBlack1902\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cheyne, Thomas Kelly; Black, John Sutherland (1902). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=GccVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3525\"><i>Encyclop\u00e6dia biblica: A critical dictionary of the literary, political and religious history, the arch\u00e6ology, geography, and natural history of the Bible</i></a>. Macmillan Company. p. 3525.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+biblica%3A+A+critical+dictionary+of+the+literary%2C+political+and+religious+history%2C+the+arch%C3%A6ology%2C+geography%2C+and+natural+history+of+the+Bible&rft.pages=3525&rft.pub=Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Cheyne&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Kelly&rft.au=Black%2C+John+Sutherland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGccVAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA3525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFB._R._Vashishta_Revised_by_A._K._Sinha_and_V._P._Singh1960\" class=\"citation book cs1\">B. R. Vashishta Revised by A. K. Sinha and V. P. Singh (1960). <i>Botany for degree students algae</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Botany+for+degree+students+algae&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=S.+Chand+and+Company&rft.date=1960&rft.au=B.+R.+Vashishta+Revised+by+A.+K.+Sinha+and+V.+P.+Singh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBhattacharyaMedlin1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bhattacharya, D.; <a href=\"/wiki/Linda_Medlin\" title=\"Linda Medlin\">Medlin, L.</a> (1998). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf\">\"Algal Phylogeny and the Origin of Land Plants\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Plant Physiology</i>. <b>116</b> (1): 9\u201315. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.116.1.9\">10.1104/pp.116.1.9</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1539170\">1539170</a></span>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090207051438/http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 February 2009.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.atitle=Algal+Phylogeny+and+the+Origin+of+Land+Plants&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9-15&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1539170%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.116.1.9&rft.aulast=Bhattacharya&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Medlin%2C+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plantphysiol.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F116%2F1%2F9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLososMasonSinger2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Losos, Jonathan B.; Mason, Kenneth A.; Singer, Susan R. (2007). <i>Biology</i> (8 ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-304110-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-07-304110-0\"><bdi>978-0-07-304110-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.edition=8&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-07-304110-0&rft.aulast=Losos&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+B.&rft.au=Mason%2C+Kenneth+A.&rft.au=Singer%2C+Susan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFArchibaldKeeling2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Archibald, J. M.; Keeling, P. J. (November 2002). \"Recycled plastids: A 'green movement' in eukaryotic evolution\". <i>Trends in Genetics</i>. <b>18</b> (11): 577\u2013584. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-9525%2802%2902777-4\">10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02777-4</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12414188\">12414188</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=Recycled+plastids%3A+A+%27green+movement%27+in+eukaryotic+evolution&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=577-584&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-9525%2802%2902777-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12414188&rft.aulast=Archibald&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft.au=Keeling%2C+P.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFJansonGraneli2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Janson, Sven; Graneli, Edna (September 2003). \"Genetic analysis of the psbA gene from single cells indicates a cryptomonad origin of the plastid in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae)\". <i>Phycologia</i>. <b>42</b> (5): 473\u2013477. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2216%2Fi0031-8884-42-5-473.1\">10.2216/i0031-8884-42-5-473.1</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8884\">0031-8884</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86730888\">86730888</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phycologia&rft.atitle=Genetic+analysis+of+the+psbA+gene+from+single+cells+indicates+a+cryptomonad+origin+of+the+plastid+in+Dinophysis+%28Dinophyceae%29&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=473-477&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86730888%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0031-8884&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2216%2Fi0031-8884-42-5-473.1&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft.au=Graneli%2C+Edna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWegener_ParfreyBarberoLasserDunthorn2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Laura_Wegener_Parfrey\" title=\"Laura Wegener Parfrey\">Wegener Parfrey, Laura</a>; Barbero, Erika; Lasser, Elyse; Dunthorn, Micah; Bhattacharya, Debashish; <a href=\"/wiki/David_J._Patterson\" title=\"David J. Patterson\">Patterson, David J.</a>; <a href=\"/wiki/Laura_A._Katz\" title=\"Laura A. Katz\">Katz, Laura A</a> (December 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1713255\">\"Evaluating Support for the Current Classification of Eukaryotic Diversity\"</a>. <i>PLOS Genetics</i>. <b>2</b> (12): e220. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.0020220\">10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1713255\">1713255</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17194223\">17194223</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Genetics&rft.atitle=Evaluating+Support+for+the+Current+Classification+of+Eukaryotic+Diversity&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e220&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1713255%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17194223&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.0020220&rft.aulast=Wegener+Parfrey&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Barbero%2C+Erika&rft.au=Lasser%2C+Elyse&rft.au=Dunthorn%2C+Micah&rft.au=Bhattacharya%2C+Debashish&rft.au=Patterson%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Katz%2C+Laura+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1713255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBurkiShalchian-TabriziMingeSkj\u00e6veland2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Burki, F.; Shalchian-Tabrizi, K.; Minge, M.; Skj\u00e6veland, \u00c5.; Nikolaev, S. I.; et al. (2007). Butler, Geraldine (ed.). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1949142\">\"Phylogenomics Reshuffles the Eukaryotic Supergroups\"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>2</b> (8): e790. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PLoSO...2..790B\">2007PLoSO...2..790B</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000790\">10.1371/journal.pone.0000790</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1949142\">1949142</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17726520\">17726520</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Phylogenomics+Reshuffles+the+Eukaryotic+Supergroups&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e790&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1949142%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17726520&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000790&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PLoSO...2..790B&rft.aulast=Burki&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Shalchian-Tabrizi%2C+K.&rft.au=Minge%2C+M.&rft.au=Skj%C3%A6veland%2C+%C3%85.&rft.au=Nikolaev%2C+S.+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1949142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLinn\u00e6us1753\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Linn\u00e6us, Caroli (1753). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/573/mode/1up\"><i>Species Plantarum</i></a>. Vol. 2. Impensis Laurentii Salvii. p. 1131.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Plantarum&rft.pages=1131&rft.pub=Impensis+Laurentii+Salvii&rft.date=1753&rft.aulast=Linn%C3%A6us&rft.aufirst=Caroli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F13830%23page%2F573%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSharma1986\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sharma, O. P. (1 January 1986). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&pg=PA22\"><i>Textbook of Algae</i></a>. p. 22. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780074519288\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780074519288\"><bdi>9780074519288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Algae&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1986-01-01&rft.isbn=9780074519288&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=O.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhOa74Hm4zDIC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFGmelin1768\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gmelin, S. G. (1768). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=YUAAAAAAQAAJ&q=%22Historia+Fucorum%22\"><i>Historia Fucorum</i></a>. St. Petersburg: Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Fucorum&rft.place=St.+Petersburg&rft.pub=Ex+typographia+Academiae+scientiarum&rft.date=1768&rft.aulast=Gmelin&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYUAAAAAAQAAJ%26q%3D%2522Historia%2BFucorum%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSilvaBassonMoe1996\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Silva, P. C.; Basson, P. W.; Moe, R. L. (1996). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=vuWEemVY8WEC&q=%22Historia+Fucorum%22+binomial+nomenclature&pg=PA2\"><i>Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean</i></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520915817\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780520915817\"><bdi>9780520915817</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catalogue+of+the+Benthic+Marine+Algae+of+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780520915817&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=P.+C.&rft.au=Basson%2C+P.+W.&rft.au=Moe%2C+R.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvuWEemVY8WEC%26q%3D%2522Historia%2BFucorum%2522%2Bbinomial%2Bnomenclature%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Medlin_et_al-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Medlin_et_al_30-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMedlinKooistraPotterSaunders1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Medlin, Linda K.; Kooistra, Wiebe H. C. F.; Potter, Daniel; Saunders, Gary W.; Anderson, Robert A. (1997). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf\">\"Phylogenetic relationships of the 'golden algae' (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Plant Systematics and Evolution</i>: 188. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20131005084158/http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 October 2013.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Systematics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+relationships+of+the+%27golden+algae%27+%28haptophytes%2C+heterokont+chromophytes%29+and+their+plastids&rft.pages=188&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Medlin&rft.aufirst=Linda+K.&rft.au=Kooistra%2C+Wiebe+H.+C.+F.&rft.au=Potter%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Saunders%2C+Gary+W.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Robert+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepic.awi.de%2F2100%2F1%2FMed1997c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFDixon1973\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dixon, P. S. (1973). <i>Biology of the Rhodophyta</i>. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. p. 232. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-05-002485-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-05-002485-0\"><bdi>978-0-05-002485-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+the+Rhodophyta&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Oliver+%26+Boyd&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-05-002485-0&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=P.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHarvey1836\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Harvey, D. (1836). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://img.algaebase.org/pdf/562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F/18893.pdf\">\"Algae\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. In Mackay, J. T. (ed.). <i><span></span></i>Flora hibernica<i> comprising the Flowering Plants Ferns Characeae Musci Hepaticae Lichenes and Algae of Ireland arranged according to the natural system with a synopsis of the genera according to the Linnaean system</i>. pp. 157\u2013254. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://img.algaebase.org/pdf/562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F/18893.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Algae&rft.btitle=Flora+hibernica+comprising+the+Flowering+Plants+Ferns+Characeae+Musci+Hepaticae+Lichenes+and+Algae+of+Ireland+arranged+according+to+the+natural+system+with+a+synopsis+of+the+genera+according+to+the+Linnaean+system&rft.pages=157-254&rft.date=1836&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimg.algaebase.org%2Fpdf%2F562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F%2F18893.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Braun, A. <i><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057#/summary\">Algarum unicellularium genera nova et minus cognita, praemissis observationibus de algis unicellularibus in genere (New and less known genera of unicellular algae, preceded by observations respecting unicellular algae in general)</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160420033958/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057\">Archived</a> 20 April 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>.</i> Lipsiae, Apud W. Engelmann, 1855. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science</i>, 1857, vol. 5, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html\">(17), 13\u201316</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130906/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html\">(18), 90\u201396</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305133158/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 5 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html\">(19), 143\u2013149</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113651/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Siebold, C. Th. v. \"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155#page/5/mode/1up\">Ueber einzellige Pflanzen und Thiere (On unicellular plants and animals)</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20141126005532/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155\">Archived</a> 26 November 2014 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>\". In: Siebold, C. Th. v. & K\u00f6lliker, A. (1849). <i>Zeitschrift f\u00fcr wissenschaftliche Zoologie</i>, Bd. 1, p. 270. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science</i>, 1853, vol. 1, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html\">(2), 111\u2013121</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114623/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html\">(3), 195\u2013206</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115243/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html\">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWilliamsKeeling2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Williams, B. A.; Keeling, P. J. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=_fAQGEJobT0C&pg=PA46\">\"Cryptic organelles in parasitic protists and fungi\"</a>. In Littlewood, D. T. J. (ed.). <i>The Evolution of Parasitism</i>. London: Elsevier Academic Press. p. 46. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-031754-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-031754-7\"><bdi>978-0-12-031754-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cryptic+organelles+in+parasitic+protists+and+fungi&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Parasitism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Elsevier+Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-031754-7&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=B.+A.&rft.au=Keeling%2C+P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_fAQGEJobT0C%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981). pp. 398\u2013400, <cite id=\"CITEREFRound1984\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Round, F. E. (8 March 1984). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA398\"><i>The Ecology of Algae</i></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521269063\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780521269063\"><bdi>9780521269063</bdi></a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Algae&rft.date=1984-03-08&rft.isbn=9780521269063&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRm08AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFNoble2003\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Noble, Ivan (18 September 2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm\">\"When plants conquered land\"</a>. BBC. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20061111170428/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm\">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2006.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=When+plants+conquered+land&rft.date=2003-09-18&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fsci%2Ftech%2F3117034.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWellmanOsterloffMohiuddin2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wellman, C. H.; Osterloff, P. L.; Mohiuddin, U. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/106/\">\"Fragments of the earliest land plants\"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>425</b> (6955): 282\u2013285. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.425..282W\">2003Natur.425..282W</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01884\">10.1038/nature01884</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13679913\">13679913</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4383813\">4383813</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194441/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/106/\">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2017.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Fragments+of+the+earliest+land+plants&rft.volume=425&rft.issue=6955&rft.pages=282-285&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01884&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4383813%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13679913&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.425..282W&rft.aulast=Wellman&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rft.au=Osterloff%2C+P.+L.&rft.au=Mohiuddin%2C+U.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F106%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Xiao2004-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Xiao2004_39-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFXiaoKnollYuanPueschel2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Xiao, S.; Knoll, A. H.; Yuan, X.; Pueschel, C. M. (2004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.2.214\">\"Phosphatized multicellular algae in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation, China, and the early evolution of florideophyte red algae\"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>91</b> (2): 214\u2013227. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.91.2.214\">10.3732/ajb.91.2.214</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21653378\">21653378</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Phosphatized+multicellular+algae+in+the+Neoproterozoic+Doushantuo+Formation%2C+China%2C+and+the+early+evolution+of+florideophyte+red+algae&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=214-227&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.2.214&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21653378&rft.aulast=Xiao&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Knoll%2C+A.+H.&rft.au=Yuan%2C+X.&rft.au=Pueschel%2C+C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.2.214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWaggoner1994\u20132008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Waggoner, Ben (1994\u20132008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081221171218/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html\">\"Introduction to the Phaeophyta: Kelps and brown \"Algae\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"></span>\"</a>. University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP). Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html\">the original</a> on 21 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Phaeophyta%3A+Kelps+and+brown+%22Algae%22&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Palaeontology+%28UCMP%29&rft.date=1994%2F2008&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fchromista%2Fphaeophyta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFThomas2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Thomas, D. N. (2002). <i>Seaweeds</i>. London: The Natural History Museum. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09175-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09175-0\"><bdi>978-0-565-09175-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Natural+History+Museum&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-565-09175-0&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=D.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWaggoner1994\u20132008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Waggoner, Ben (1994\u20132008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081218211021/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html\">\"Introduction to the Rhodophyta, the red 'algae'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"></span>\"</a>. University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP). Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html\">the original</a> on 18 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Rhodophyta%2C+the+red+%27algae%27&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Palaeontology+%28UCMP%29&rft.date=1994%2F2008&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fprotista%2Frhodophyta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20070213103838/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html\">\"Introduction to the Green Algae\"</a>. <i>berkeley.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html\">the original</a> on 13 February 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=berkeley.edu&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Green+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fgreenalgae%2Fgreenalgae.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Connell_et_al_2014-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Connell_et_al_2014_44-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFConnellFosterAiroldi2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Connell, Sean; Foster, M.S.; Airoldi, Laura (9 January 2014). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285992380\">\"What are algal turfs? Towards a better description of turfs\"</a>. <i>Marine Ecology Progress Series</i>. <b>495</b>: 299\u2013307. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MEPS..495..299C\">2014MEPS..495..299C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps10513\">10.3354/meps10513</a></span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=What+are+algal+turfs%3F+Towards+a+better+description+of+turfs&rft.volume=495&rft.pages=299-307&rft.date=2014-01-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps10513&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MEPS..495..299C&rft.aulast=Connell&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Foster%2C+M.S.&rft.au=Airoldi%2C+Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F285992380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFTazawa2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Tazawa, Masashi (2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=iMxH0-q42PkC&pg=PA31\">\"Sixty Years Research with Characean Cells: Fascinating Material for Plant Cell Biology\"</a>. <i>Progress in Botany 72</i>. Progress in Botany. Vol. 72. Springer. pp. 5\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-13145-5_1\">10.1007/978-3-642-13145-5_1</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-13145-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-3-642-13145-5\"><bdi>978-3-642-13145-5</bdi></a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sixty+Years+Research+with+Characean+Cells%3A+Fascinating+Material+for+Plant+Cell+Biology&rft.btitle=Progress+in+Botany+72&rft.series=Progress+in+Botany&rft.pages=5-34&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-13145-5_1&rft.isbn=978-3-642-13145-5&rft.aulast=Tazawa&rft.aufirst=Masashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiMxH0-q42PkC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFTarakhovskayaMaslovShishova2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tarakhovskaya, E. R.; Maslov, Yu. I.; Shishova, M. F. (April 2007). \"Phytohormones in algae\". <i>Russian Journal of Plant Physiology</i>. <b>54</b> (2): 163\u2013170. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1134%2Fs1021443707020021\">10.1134/s1021443707020021</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27373543\">27373543</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Journal+of+Plant+Physiology&rft.atitle=Phytohormones+in+algae&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=163-170&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2Fs1021443707020021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27373543%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tarakhovskaya&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft.au=Maslov%2C+Yu.+I.&rft.au=Shishova%2C+M.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFBrodoSharnoffSharnoffLaurie-Bourque2001\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen; Laurie-Bourque, Susan (2001). <i>Lichens of North America</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 8. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08249-4\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08249-4\"><bdi>978-0-300-08249-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lichens+of+North+America&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08249-4&rft.aulast=Brodo&rft.aufirst=Irwin+M.&rft.au=Sharnoff%2C+Sylvia+Duran&rft.au=Sharnoff%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Laurie-Bourque%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFPearson1995\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pearson, Lorentz C. (1995). <i>The Diversity and Evolution of Plants</i>. CRC Press. p. 221. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2483-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2483-3\"><bdi>978-0-8493-2483-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diversity+and+Evolution+of+Plants&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-2483-3&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Lorentz+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brodo et al. (2001), p. 6: \"A species of lichen collected anywhere in its range has the same lichen-forming fungus and, generally, the same photobiont. (A particular photobiont, though, may associate with scores of different lichen fungi).\"</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brodo et al. (2001), p. 8.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFTaylor1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Taylor, Dennis L. (1983). \"The coral-algal symbiosis\". In Goff, Lynda J. (ed.). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/algalsymbiosisco0000unse\"><i>Algal Symbiosis: A Continuum of Interaction Strategies</i></a></span>. CUP Archive. pp. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/algalsymbiosisco0000unse/page/19\">19</a>\u201320. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25541-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25541-7\"><bdi>978-0-521-25541-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+coral-algal+symbiosis&rft.btitle=Algal+Symbiosis%3A+A+Continuum+of+Interaction+Strategies&rft.pages=19-20&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25541-7&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Dennis+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falgalsymbiosisco0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFKnight2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Knight, Susan (Fall 2001). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20070702204058/http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf\">\"Are There Sponges in Your Lake?\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lake Tides</i>. Wisconsin Lakes Partnership. <b>26</b> (4): 4\u20135. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf\">the original</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> on 2 July 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 August</span> 2007</span> – via UWSP.edu.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lake+Tides&rft.atitle=Are+There+Sponges+in+Your+Lake%3F&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=4-5&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuwsp.edu%2Fcnr%2FUWEXlakes%2Flaketides%2Fvol26-4%2Fvol26-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFFrenkelVyvermanPohnert2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Frenkel, J.; Vyverman, W.; Pohnert, G. (2014). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ftpj.12496\">\"Pheromone signaling during sexual reproduction in algae\"</a>. <i>Plant J</i>. <b>79</b> (4): 632\u2013644. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ftpj.12496\">10.1111/tpj.12496</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24597605\">24597605</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+J.&rft.atitle=Pheromone+signaling+during+sexual+reproduction+in+algae&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=632-644&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Ftpj.12496&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24597605&rft.aulast=Frenkel&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Vyverman%2C+W.&rft.au=Pohnert%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Ftpj.12496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bernstein H; Byerly HC; Hopf FA; Michod RE (1985). \"Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex\". Science. 229 (4719): 1277\u201381. Bibcode:1985Sci...229.1277B. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.3898363\">10.1126/science.3898363</a>. PMID 3898363,</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFOtto2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Otto, S. P. (2009). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427058\">\"The evolutionary enigma of sex\"</a>. <i>Am. Nat</i>. <b>174</b> (Suppl 1): S1\u2013S14. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F599084\">10.1086/599084</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19441962\">19441962</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9250680\">9250680</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20170409111359/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427058\">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2017.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+Nat.&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+enigma+of+sex&rft.volume=174&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=S1-S14&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9250680%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19441962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F599084&rft.aulast=Otto&rft.aufirst=S.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F24427058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHeywoodMagee1976\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Heywood, P.; Magee, P. T. (1976). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC413949\">\"Meiosis in protists: Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa\"</a>. <i>Bacteriol Rev</i>. <b>40</b> (1): 190\u2013240. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.40.1.190-240.1976\">10.1128/MMBR.40.1.190-240.1976</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC413949\">413949</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/773364\">773364</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bacteriol+Rev&rft.atitle=Meiosis+in+protists%3A+Some+structural+and+physiological+aspects+of+meiosis+in+algae%2C+fungi%2C+and+protozoa&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=190-240&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC413949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F773364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.40.1.190-240.1976&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Magee%2C+P.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC413949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm\">\"Algae Herbarium\"</a>. National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081201112552/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+Herbarium&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+Department+of+Botany&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2Fherbarium.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">John (2002), p. 1.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Huisman (2000), p. 25.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Stegenga (1997).</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFClerck2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Clerck, Olivier (2005). <i>Guide to the seaweeds of KwaZulu-Natal</i>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-72619-64-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-90-72619-64-8\"><bdi>978-90-72619-64-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+the+seaweeds+of+KwaZulu-Natal&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-72619-64-8&rft.aulast=Clerck&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Abbott and Hollenberg (1976), p. 2.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hardy and Guiry (2006).</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFGuiry2012\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael D.</a> (2012). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263561612\">\"How Many Species of Algae Are There?\"</a>. <i>Journal of Phycology</i>. <b>48</b> (5): 1057\u20131063. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2012.01222.x\">10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01222.x</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27011267\">27011267</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30911529\">30911529</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Phycology&rft.atitle=How+Many+Species+of+Algae+Are+There%3F&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1057-1063&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30911529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27011267&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2012.01222.x&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F263561612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Round8-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Round8_65-3\"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRound1981\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Round, F. E. (1981). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA398\">\"Chapter 8, Dispersal, continuity and phytogeography\"</a>. <i>The ecology of algae</i>. pp. 357\u2013361. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521269063\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780521269063\"><bdi>9780521269063</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%2C+Dispersal%2C+continuity+and+phytogeography&rft.btitle=The+ecology+of+algae&rft.pages=357-361&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780521269063&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRm08AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 362.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-67\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 357.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-68\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 371.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 366.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Round (1981), p. 176.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.space.com/40266-greenland-dark-zone-gets-darker.html\">\"Greenland Has a Mysterious 'Dark Zone' \u2014 And It's Getting Even Darker\"</a>. <i>Space.com</i>. 10 April 2018.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Greenland+Has+a+Mysterious+%27Dark+Zone%27+%E2%80%94+And+It%27s+Getting+Even+Darker&rft.date=2018-04-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F40266-greenland-dark-zone-gets-darker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://news.sky.com/story/alpine-glacier-turning-pink-due-to-algae-that-accelerates-climate-change-scientists-say-12022244\">\"Alpine glacier turning pink due to algae that accelerates climate change, scientists say\"</a>. <i>Sky News</i>. 6 July 2020.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sky+News&rft.atitle=Alpine+glacier+turning+pink+due+to+algae+that+accelerates+climate+change%2C+scientists+say&rft.date=2020-07-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.sky.com%2Fstory%2Falpine-glacier-turning-pink-due-to-algae-that-accelerates-climate-change-scientists-say-12022244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Omar2010-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Omar2010_73-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Omar2010_73-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Omar2010_73-2\"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFOmar2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Omar, Wan Maznah Wan (December 2010). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819078\">\"Perspectives on the Use of Algae as Biological Indicators for Monitoring and Protecting Aquatic Environments, with Special Reference to Malaysian Freshwater Ecosystems\"</a>. <i>Trop Life Sci Res</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 51\u201367. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819078\">3819078</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24575199\">24575199</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trop+Life+Sci+Res&rft.atitle=Perspectives+on+the+Use+of+Algae+as+Biological+Indicators+for+Monitoring+and+Protecting+Aquatic+Environments%2C+with+Special+Reference+to+Malaysian+Freshwater+Ecosystems&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=51-67&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3819078%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24575199&rft.aulast=Omar&rft.aufirst=Wan+Maznah+Wan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3819078&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Necchi Jr., O. (ed.) (2016). <i>River Algae</i>. Springer, <cite id=\"CITEREFNecchi2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Necchi, Orlando J. R. (2 June 2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=KptPDAAAQBAJ\"><i>River Algae</i></a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319319841\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9783319319841\"><bdi>9783319319841</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=River+Algae&rft.date=2016-06-02&rft.isbn=9783319319841&rft.aulast=Necchi&rft.aufirst=Orlando+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKptPDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFJohansen2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Johansen, J. R. (2012). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=SpuPKw7zZGAC&pg=PA465\">\"The Diatoms: Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences\"</a>. In Smol, J. P.; Stoermer, E. F. (eds.). <i>Diatoms of aerial habitats</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 465\u2013472. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139492621\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9781139492621\"><bdi>9781139492621</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Diatoms%3A+Applications+for+the+Environmental+and+Earth+Sciences&rft.btitle=Diatoms+of+aerial+habitats&rft.pages=465-472&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781139492621&rft.aulast=Johansen&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSpuPKw7zZGAC%26pg%3DPA465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Sharma, O. P. (1986). pp. 2\u20136, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&pg=PA2\">[1]</a>.</span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Algaculture_:1-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Algaculture_:1_77-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFHuesemannWilliamsEdmundsonChen2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Huesemann, M.; Williams, P.; Edmundson, Scott J.; Chen, P.; Kruk, R.; Cullinan, V.; Crowe, B.; Lundquist, T. (September 2017). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2017.06.017\">\"The laboratory environmental algae pond simulator (LEAPS) photobioreactor: Validation using outdoor pond cultures of Chlorella sorokiniana and Nannochloropsis salina\"</a>. <i>Algal Research</i>. <b>26</b>: 39\u201346. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.algal.2017.06.017\">10.1016/j.algal.2017.06.017</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2211-9264\">2211-9264</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"OSTI (identifier)\">OSTI</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1581797\">1581797</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Algal+Research&rft.atitle=The+laboratory+environmental+algae+pond+simulator+%28LEAPS%29+photobioreactor%3A+Validation+using+outdoor+pond+cultures+of+Chlorella+sorokiniana+and+Nannochloropsis+salina&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=39-46&rft.date=2017-09&rft.issn=2211-9264&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1581797%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.algal.2017.06.017&rft.aulast=Huesemann&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Williams%2C+P.&rft.au=Edmundson%2C+Scott+J.&rft.au=Chen%2C+P.&rft.au=Kruk%2C+R.&rft.au=Cullinan%2C+V.&rft.au=Crowe%2C+B.&rft.au=Lundquist%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.algal.2017.06.017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLaneDerbyshireLiBrennan2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lane, Katie; Derbyshire, Emma; Li, Weili; Brennan, Charles (January 2014). \"Bioavailability and Potential Uses of Vegetarian Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids: A Review of the Literature\". <i>Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition</i>. <b>54</b> (5): 572\u2013579. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2011.596292\">10.1080/10408398.2011.596292</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24261532\">24261532</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30307483\">30307483</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Food+Science+and+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Bioavailability+and+Potential+Uses+of+Vegetarian+Sources+of+Omega-3+Fatty+Acids%3A+A+Review+of+the+Literature&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=572-579&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30307483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24261532&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408398.2011.596292&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Derbyshire%2C+Emma&rft.au=Li%2C+Weili&rft.au=Brennan%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWinwood2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Winwood, R.J. (2013). \"Algal oil as a source of omega-3 fatty acids\". <i>Food Enrichment with Omega-3 Fatty Acids</i>: 389\u2013404. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1533%2F9780857098863.4.389\">10.1533/9780857098863.4.389</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857094285\" title=\"Special:BookSources/9780857094285\"><bdi>9780857094285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Enrichment+with+Omega-3+Fatty+Acids&rft.atitle=Algal+oil+as+a+source+of+omega-3+fatty+acids&rft.pages=389-404&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1533%2F9780857098863.4.389&rft.isbn=9780857094285&rft.aulast=Winwood&rft.aufirst=R.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLenihan-GeelsBishopFerguson2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lenihan-Geels, Georgia; Bishop, Karen; Ferguson, Lynnette (18 April 2013). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705349\">\"Alternative Sources of Omega-3 Fats: Can We Find a Sustainable Substitute for Fish?\"</a>. <i>Nutrients</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 1301\u20131315. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fnu5041301\">10.3390/nu5041301</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705349\">3705349</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23598439\">23598439</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nutrients&rft.atitle=Alternative+Sources+of+Omega-3+Fats%3A+Can+We+Find+a+Sustainable+Substitute+for+Fish%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1301-1315&rft.date=2013-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3705349%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23598439&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fnu5041301&rft.aulast=Lenihan-Geels&rft.aufirst=Georgia&rft.au=Bishop%2C+Karen&rft.au=Ferguson%2C+Lynnette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3705349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3_81-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFVenkatesh2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Venkatesh, G. (1 March 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs43615-021-00084-3\">\"Circular Bio-economy\u2014Paradigm for the Future: Systematic Review of Scientific Journal Publications from 2015 to 2021\"</a>. <i>Circular Economy and Sustainability</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 231\u2013279. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs43615-021-00084-3\">10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2730-5988\">2730-5988</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238768104\">238768104</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Circular+Economy+and+Sustainability&rft.atitle=Circular+Bio-economy%E2%80%94Paradigm+for+the+Future%3A+Systematic+Review+of+Scientific+Journal+Publications+from+2015+to+2021&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=231-279&rft.date=2022-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A238768104%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2730-5988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs43615-021-00084-3&rft.aulast=Venkatesh&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs43615-021-00084-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_82-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFDiazDouglasKangKolarik2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Diaz, Crisandra J.; Douglas, Kai J.; Kang, Kalisa; Kolarik, Ashlynn L.; Malinovski, Rodeon; Torres-Tiji, Yasin; Molino, Jo\u00e3o V.; Badary, Amr; Mayfield, Stephen P. (2023). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9892066\">\"Developing algae as a sustainable food source\"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Nutrition</i>. <b>9</b>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnut.2022.1029841\">10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2296-861X\">2296-861X</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9892066\">9892066</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36742010\">36742010</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Developing+algae+as+a+sustainable+food+source&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9892066%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2296-861X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36742010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnut.2022.1029841&rft.aulast=Diaz&rft.aufirst=Crisandra+J.&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Kai+J.&rft.au=Kang%2C+Kalisa&rft.au=Kolarik%2C+Ashlynn+L.&rft.au=Malinovski%2C+Rodeon&rft.au=Torres-Tiji%2C+Yasin&rft.au=Molino%2C+Jo%C3%A3o+V.&rft.au=Badary%2C+Amr&rft.au=Mayfield%2C+Stephen+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9892066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Algaculture_:0-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Algaculture_:0_83-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf\"><i>In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018</i></a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. FAO. 2018.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+brief%2C+The+State+of+World+Fisheries+and+Aquaculture%2C+2018&rft.pub=FAO&rft.date=2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fca0191en%2Fca0191en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFVerdelho_VieiraCadoretAcienBenemann2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Verdelho Vieira, V\u00edtor; Cadoret, Jean-Paul; Acien, F. Gabriel; Benemann, John (January 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpr10010175\">\"Clarification of Most Relevant Concepts Related to the Microalgae Production Sector\"</a>. <i>Processes</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 175. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpr10010175\">10.3390/pr10010175</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2227-9717\">2227-9717</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Processes&rft.atitle=Clarification+of+Most+Relevant+Concepts+Related+to+the+Microalgae+Production+Sector&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=175&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fpr10010175&rft.issn=2227-9717&rft.aulast=Verdelho+Vieira&rft.aufirst=V%C3%ADtor&rft.au=Cadoret%2C+Jean-Paul&rft.au=Acien%2C+F.+Gabriel&rft.au=Benemann%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fpr10010175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213_85-0\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFGreeneScott-BuechlerHausnerJohnson2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Greene, Charles; Scott-Buechler, Celina; Hausner, Arjun; Johnson, Zackary; Lei, Xin Gen; Huntley, Mark (2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2022.213\">\"Transforming the Future of Marine Aquaculture: A Circular Economy Approach\"</a>. <i>Oceanography</i>: 26\u201334. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2022.213\">10.5670/oceanog.2022.213</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1042-8275\">1042-8275</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanography&rft.atitle=Transforming+the+Future+of+Marine+Aquaculture%3A+A+Circular+Economy+Approach&rft.pages=26-34&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5670%2Foceanog.2022.213&rft.issn=1042-8275&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Scott-Buechler%2C+Celina&rft.au=Hausner%2C+Arjun&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Zackary&rft.au=Lei%2C+Xin+Gen&rft.au=Huntley%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5670%252Foceanog.2022.213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>\n<ul><li>News article about the study: <cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/nutrient-rich-algae-could-help-meet-global-food-demand-cornell-researchers-1.6117300\">\"Nutrient-rich algae could help meet global food demand: Cornell researchers\"</a>. <i>CTVNews</i>. 20 October 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CTVNews&rft.atitle=Nutrient-rich+algae+could+help+meet+global+food+demand%3A+Cornell+researchers&rft.date=2022-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctvnews.ca%2Fsci-tech%2Fnutrient-rich-algae-could-help-meet-global-food-demand-cornell-researchers-1.6117300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n</span></li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-0\"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_86-1\"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFReynoldsCaminitiEdmundsonGao2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Reynolds, Daman; Caminiti, Jeff; Edmundson, Scott; Gao, Song; Wick, Macdonald; Huesemann, Michael (12 July 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac190\">\"Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet\"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</i>. <b>116</b> (4): 855\u2013861. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2Fnqac190\">10.1093/ajcn/nqac190</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\">ISSN</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9165\">0002-9165</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35820048\">35820048</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Clinical+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Seaweed+proteins+are+nutritionally+valuable+components+in+the+human+diet&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=855-861&rft.date=2022-07-12&rft.issn=0002-9165&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35820048&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2Fnqac190&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Daman&rft.au=Caminiti%2C+Jeff&rft.au=Edmundson%2C+Scott&rft.au=Gao%2C+Song&rft.au=Wick%2C+Macdonald&rft.au=Huesemann%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2Fnqac190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ptreyes.org/activities/seaweeds-plants-or-algae\">\"Seaweeds: Plants or Algae?\"</a>. <i>Point Reyes National Seashore Association</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/09_SROCC_Ch05_FINAL.pdf\">\"Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</i>. pp. 447\u2013587.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Changing+Ocean%2C+Marine+Ecosystems%2C+and+Dependent+Communities&rft.btitle=IPCC+Special+Report+on+the+Ocean+and+Cryosphere+in+a+Changing+Climate&rft.pages=447-587&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Bindoff&rft.aufirst=N.+L.&rft.au=Cheung%2C+W.+W.+L.&rft.au=Kairo%2C+J.+G.&rft.au=Ar%C3%ADstegui%2C+J.&rft.au=Guinder%2C+V.+A.&rft.au=Hallberg%2C+R.&rft.au=Hilmi%2C+N.+J.+M.&rft.au=Jiao%2C+N.&rft.au=Karim%2C+Md+S.&rft.au=Levin%2C+L.&rft.au=O%27Donoghue%2C+S.&rft.au=Purca+Cuicapusa%2C+S.+R.&rft.au=Rinkevich%2C+B.&rft.au=Suga%2C+T.&rft.au=Tagliabue%2C+A.&rft.au=Williamson%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Fsite%2Fassets%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F3%2F2019%2F11%2F09_SROCC_Ch05_FINAL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFZhuSchmidtValdezSnowden-Swan2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zhu, Yunhua; Schmidt, Andrew; Valdez, Peter; Snowden-Swan, Lesley; Edmundson, Scott (21 March 2022). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1855835\">\"Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Upgrading of Wastewater-Grown Microalgae: 2021 State of Technology\"</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.2172%2F1855835\">10.2172/1855835</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"OSTI (identifier)\">OSTI</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1855835\">1855835</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247648577\">247648577</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+Liquefaction+and+Upgrading+of+Wastewater-Grown+Microalgae%3A+2021+State+of+Technology&rft.date=2022-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247648577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1855835%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F1855835&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Yunhua&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Valdez%2C+Peter&rft.au=Snowden-Swan%2C+Lesley&rft.au=Edmundson%2C+Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2172%2F1855835&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span> <span class=\"cs1-hidden-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"/wiki/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class=\"cs1-hidden-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=</code> (<a href=\"/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help</a>)</span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLewisStanleyGuist1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lewis, J. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9.+Commercial+production+of+algal+hydrocolloides&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft.au=Stanley%2C+N.+F.&rft.au=Guist%2C+G.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=35715&-session=abv3:51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315\">\"Macrocystis C. Agardh 1820: 46\"</a>. AlgaeBase. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090104145632/http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=35715&-session=abv3%3A51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315\">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Macrocystis+C.+Agardh+1820%3A+46&rft.pub=AlgaeBase&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algaebase.org%2Fgeneradetail.lasso%3Fgenus_id%3D35715%26-session%3Dabv3%3A51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-97\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/economicuses/brownalgae.htm\">\"Secondary Products of Brown Algae\"</a>. <i>Algae Research</i>. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090413034226/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/economicuses/brownalgae.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Algae+Research&rft.atitle=Secondary+Products+of+Brown+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2Feconomicuses%2Fbrownalgae.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-98\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFChisti2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chisti, Y. (May\u2013June 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.academia.edu/2137836\">\"Biodiesel from microalgae\"</a>. <i>Biotechnology Advances</i>. <b>25</b> (3): 294\u2013306. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biotechadv.2007.02.001\">10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.001</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17350212\">17350212</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biotechnology+Advances&rft.atitle=Biodiesel+from+microalgae&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=294-306&rft.date=2007-05%2F2007-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biotechadv.2007.02.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17350212&rft.aulast=Chisti&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2137836&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-99\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFYangNiuMaXue2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yang, Z. K.; Niu, Y. F.; Ma, Y. H.; Xue, J.; Zhang, M. H.; Yang, W. D.; Liu, J. S.; Lu, S. H.; Guan, Y.; Li, H. Y. (4 May 2013). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662598\">\"Molecular and cellular mechanisms of neutral lipid accumulation in diatom following nitrogen deprivation\"</a>. <i>Biotechnology for Biofuels</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 67. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1754-6834-6-67\">10.1186/1754-6834-6-67</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662598\">3662598</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23642220\">23642220</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biotechnology+for+Biofuels&rft.atitle=Molecular+and+cellular+mechanisms+of+neutral+lipid+accumulation+in+diatom+following+nitrogen+deprivation.&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67&rft.date=2013-05-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3662598%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23642220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1754-6834-6-67&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Z.+K.&rft.au=Niu%2C+Y.+F.&rft.au=Ma%2C+Y.+H.&rft.au=Xue%2C+J.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+M.+H.&rft.au=Yang%2C+W.+D.&rft.au=Liu%2C+J.+S.&rft.au=Lu%2C+S.+H.&rft.au=Guan%2C+Y.&rft.au=Li%2C+H.+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3662598&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-100\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFWijffelsBarbosa2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wijffels, Ren\u00e9 H.; Barbosa, Maria J. (2010). \"An Outlook on Microalgal Biofuels\". <i>Science</i>. <b>329</b> (5993): 796\u2013799. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...329..796W\">2010Sci...329..796W</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1189003\">10.1126/science.1189003</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20705853\">20705853</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206526311\">206526311</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=An+Outlook+on+Microalgal+Biofuels&rft.volume=329&rft.issue=5993&rft.pages=796-799&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1189003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206526311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20705853&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Sci...329..796W&rft.aulast=Wijffels&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9+H.&rft.au=Barbosa%2C+Maria+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-101\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRead1849\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Clare_Sewell_Read\" title=\"Clare Sewell Read\">Read, Clare Sewell</a> (1849). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://books.google.com/books?id=UJYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142\">\"On the Farming of South Wales: Prize Report\"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England</i>. <b>10</b>: 142\u2013143.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Agricultural+Society+of+England&rft.atitle=On+the+Farming+of+South+Wales%3A+Prize+Report&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=142-143&rft.date=1849&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=Clare+Sewell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUJYEAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-102\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMcHugh2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">McHugh, Dennis J. (2003). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4765E/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage\">\"9, Other Uses of Seaweeds\"</a>. <i>A Guide to the Seaweed Industry: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441</i>. Rome: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-104958-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-92-5-104958-7\"><bdi>978-92-5-104958-7</bdi></a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081228115716/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4765e/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage\">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2008.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9%2C+Other+Uses+of+Seaweeds&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Seaweed+Industry%3A+FAO+Fisheries+Technical+Paper+441&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Fisheries+and+Aquaculture+Department%2C+Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+%28FAO%29+of+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-92-5-104958-7&rft.aulast=McHugh&rft.aufirst=Dennis+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2FDOCREP%2F006%2FY4765E%2Fy4765e0c.htm%23TopOfPage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-103\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFJungKruger-GengeKupperWaldeck2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jung, Frederich; Kruger-Genge, Anne; Kupper, J.-H.; Waldeck, P (April 2019). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332594307\">\"Spirulina platensis, a super food?\"</a>. <i>ResearchGate</i>. <b>5</b>: 43<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ResearchGate&rft.atitle=Spirulina+platensis%2C+a+super+food%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=43&rft.date=2019-04&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=Frederich&rft.au=Kruger-Genge%2C+Anne&rft.au=Kupper%2C+J.-H.&rft.au=Waldeck%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332594307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-104\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFSimoons1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Simoons, Frederick J. (1991). \"6, Seaweeds and Other Algae\". <i>Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry</i>. CRC Press. pp. 179\u2013190. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-936923-29-1\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-936923-29-1\"><bdi>978-0-936923-29-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%2C+Seaweeds+and+Other+Algae&rft.btitle=Food+in+China%3A+A+Cultural+and+Historical+Inquiry&rft.pages=179-190&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-936923-29-1&rft.aulast=Simoons&rft.aufirst=Frederick+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-105\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMorton\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Morton, Steve L. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081223081614/http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm\">\"Modern Uses of Cultivated Algae\"</a>. <i>Ethnobotanical Leaflets</i>. Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm\">the original</a> on 23 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnobotanical+Leaflets&rft.atitle=Modern+Uses+of+Cultivated+Algae&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Steve+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.siu.edu%2F~ebl%2Fleaflets%2Falgae.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFMondrag\u00f3nMondrag\u00f3n2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mondrag\u00f3n, Jennifer; Mondrag\u00f3n, Jeff (2003). <i>Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast</i>. Monterey, California: Sea Challengers Publications. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930118-29-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-930118-29-7\"><bdi>978-0-930118-29-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+Pacific+Coast&rft.place=Monterey%2C+California&rft.pub=Sea+Challengers+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-930118-29-7&rft.aulast=Mondrag%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Mondrag%C3%B3n%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-107\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=11752&sk=0&from=results&-session=abv3:51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7\">\"Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot\"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=Algae%3A+Pond+Scum+or+Food+of+the+Future%3F&rft.date=2018-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Finnovation%2Fedible-innovations%2Falgae-food-future.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRaniSandalSahoo2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rani, Komal; Sandal, Nidi; Sahoo, PK (2018). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2018/vol7issue7/PartJ/7-7-62-339.pdf\">\"A comprehensive review on chlorella- its composition, health benefits, market and regulatory scenario\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Pharma Innovation Journal</i>. <b>7</b> (7): 585. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2018/vol7issue7/PartJ/7-7-62-339.pdf\">Archived</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pharma+Innovation+Journal&rft.atitle=A+comprehensive+review+on+chlorella-+its+composition%2C+health+benefits%2C+market+and+regulatory+scenario&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=585&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Rani&rft.aufirst=Komal&rft.au=Sandal%2C+Nidi&rft.au=Sahoo%2C+PK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepharmajournal.com%2Farchives%2F2018%2Fvol7issue7%2FPartJ%2F7-7-62-339.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-112\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bantilan, C., MS, RD, CD. 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(2002). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11320290\">\"Lipid and fatty acid composition of the green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid\"</a>. <i>Phytochemistry</i>. <b>60</b> (5): 497\u2013503. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-9422%2802%2900100-0\">10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00100-0</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12052516\">12052516</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20171001204617/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11320290\">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2017.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phytochemistry&rft.atitle=Lipid+and+fatty+acid+composition+of+the+green+oleaginous+alga+Parietochloris+incisa%2C+the+richest+plant+source+of+arachidonic+acid&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=497-503&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0031-9422%2802%2900100-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12052516&rft.aulast=Bigogno&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Khozin-Goldberg%2C+I.&rft.au=Boussiba%2C+S.&rft.au=Vonshak%2C+A.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F11320290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAubrey2007\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Aubrey, Allison (1 November 2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852\">\"Getting Brain Food Straight from the Source\"</a>. <i>Morning Edition</i>. <a href=\"/wiki/NPR\" title=\"NPR\">NPR</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20071103025842/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852\">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2007.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Morning+Edition&rft.atitle=Getting+Brain+Food+Straight+from+the+Source&rft.date=2007-11-01&rft.aulast=Aubrey&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D15823852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-115\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/re-imagining-algae/7926214-AU\">\"Re-imagining algae\"</a>. 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(1988). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859\">\"Nutrient cycling in the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium \u2013 Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia\"</a>. <i>ReefBase</i>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20150223045428/http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859\">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2015.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ReefBase&rft.atitle=Nutrient+cycling+in+the+Great+Barrier+Reef+Aquarium+%E2%80%93+Proceedings+of+the+6th+International+Coral+Reef+Symposium%2C+Australia&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Morrissey&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Jones%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Harriott%2C+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reefbase.org%2Fresource_center%2Fpublication%2Fmain.aspx%3Frefid%3D10859&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-117\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263\">\"Patent US4333263 \u2013 Algal turf scrubber\"</a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20110906144244/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263\">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2011 – via Google Patent Search.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patent+US4333263+%E2%80%93+Algal+turf+scrubber&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fpatents%2Fabout%3Fid%3DNogyAAAAEBAJ%26dq%3DU.S.%2BPatent%2B4333263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-118\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032016/http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf\">\"Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. 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USDA Agricultural Research Service. 7 May 2010. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20101019142625/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm\">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2010.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae%3A+A+Mean%2C+Green+Cleaning+Machine&rft.pub=USDA+Agricultural+Research+Service&rft.date=2010-05-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ars.usda.gov%2Fis%2FAR%2Farchive%2Fmay10%2Falgae0510.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-121\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.oilgae.com/non_fuel_products/biopolymers.html\">\"Algae Biopolymers, Companies, Production, Market \u2013 Oilgae \u2013 Oil from Algae\"</a>. <i>oilgae.com</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oilgae.com&rft.atitle=Algae+Biopolymers%2C+Companies%2C+Production%2C+Market+%E2%80%93+Oilgae+%E2%80%93+Oil+from+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oilgae.com%2Fnon_fuel_products%2Fbiopolymers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-122\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.zmescience.com/science/algae-flip-flop/\">\"Renewable flip flops: scientists produce the 'No. 1' footwear in the world from algae\"</a>. <i>ZME Science</i>. 9 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZME+Science&rft.atitle=Renewable+flip+flops%3A+scientists+produce+the+%27No.+1%27+footwear+in+the+world+from+algae&rft.date=2017-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmescience.com%2Fscience%2Falgae-flip-flop%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-123\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/articles/world-s-first-algae-surfboard-makes-waves-san-diego\">\"World's First Algae Surfboard Makes Waves in San Diego\"</a>. <i>Energy.gov</i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=World%27s+First+Algae+Surfboard+Makes+Waves+in+San+Diego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fbioenergy%2Farticles%2Fworld-s-first-algae-surfboard-makes-waves-san-diego&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-124\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFCappitelliSorlini2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cappitelli, Francesca; Sorlini, Claudia (2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722\">\"Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage\"</a>. <i>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 564\u2013569. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApEnM..74..564C\">2008ApEnM..74..564C</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07\">10.1128/AEM.01768-07</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\">PMC</a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722\">2227722</a></span>. <a href=\"/wiki/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18065627\">18065627</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+and+Environmental+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Microorganisms+Attack+Synthetic+Polymers+in+Items+Representing+Our+Cultural+Heritage&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=564-569&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2227722%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18065627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ApEnM..74..564C&rft.aulast=Cappitelli&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Sorlini%2C+Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2227722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFAradSpharim1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Arad, Shoshana; Spharim, Ishai (1998). \"Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry\". In Altman, Arie (ed.). <i>Agricultural Biotechnology</i>. Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment. Vol. 61. CRC Press. p. 638. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-9439-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-9439-2\"><bdi>978-0-8247-9439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Production+of+Valuable+Products+from+Microalgae%3A+An+Emerging+Agroindustry&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Biotechnology&rft.series=Books+in+Soils%2C+Plants%2C+and+the+Environment&rft.pages=638&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-9439-2&rft.aulast=Arad&rft.aufirst=Shoshana&rft.au=Spharim%2C+Ishai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFRathbunDoyleWaterhouse1994\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rathbun, C.; Doyle, A.; Waterhouse, T. (June 1994). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064738/http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf\">\"Measurement of Algal Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by HPLC\"</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span>. <i>Joint Global Ocean Flux Study Protocols</i>. <b>13</b>: 91\u201396. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf\">the original</a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joint+Global+Ocean+Flux+Study+Protocols&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+Algal+Chlorophylls+and+Carotenoids+by+HPLC&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=91-96&rft.date=1994-06&rft.aulast=Rathbun&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Doyle%2C+A.&rft.au=Waterhouse%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbats.bios.edu%2Fmethods%2Fchapter13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^</a></b></span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"CITEREFLatasaBidigare1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Latasa, M.; Bidigare, R. (1998). \"A comparison of phytoplankton populations of the Arabian Sea during the Spring Intermonsoon and Southwest Monsoon of 1995 as described by HPLC-analyzed pigments\". <i>Deep-Sea Research Part II</i>. <b>45</b> (10\u201311): 2133\u20132170. <a href=\"/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\">Bibcode</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998DSRII..45.2133L\">1998DSRII..45.2133L</a>. <a href=\"/wiki/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2898%2900066-6\">10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00066-6</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+II&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+phytoplankton+populations+of+the+Arabian+Sea+during+the+Spring+Intermonsoon+and+Southwest+Monsoon+of+1995+as+described+by+HPLC-analyzed+pigments&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=10%E2%80%9311&rft.pages=2133-2170&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2898%2900066-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998DSRII..45.2133L&rft.aulast=Latasa&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Bidigare%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></span>\n</li>\n</ol></div></div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=35\" title=\"Edit section: Bibliography\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n</style><div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General\">General</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=36\" title=\"Edit section: General\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFChapman1950\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chapman, V.J. (1950). <i>Seaweeds and their Uses</i>. London: Methuen. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-15740-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-412-15740-0\"><bdi>978-0-412-15740-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+and+their+Uses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-412-15740-0&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=V.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFFritsch1945\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol\">Fritsch, F. E. (1945) [1935]. <i>The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae</i>. Vol. I & II. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+and+Reproduction+of+the+Algae&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Fritsch&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFvan_den_HoekMannJahns1995\" class=\"citation book cs1\">van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. M. (1995). <i>Algae: An Introduction to Phycology</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algae%3A+An+Introduction+to+Phycology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=van+den+Hoek&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Mann%2C+D.+G.&rft.au=Jahns%2C+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFKassinger2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kassinger, Ruth (2020). <i>Slime: How Algae Created Us, Plague Us, and Just Might Save Us</i>. Mariner.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slime%3A+How+Algae+Created+Us%2C+Plague+Us%2C+and+Just+Might+Save+Us&rft.pub=Mariner&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kassinger&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFLembiWaaland1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). <i>Algae and Human Affairs</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Lembi&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Waaland%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFMumfordMiura1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mumford, T. F.; Miura, A. (1988). \"<i>Porphyra</i> as food: cultivation and economic\". In Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J. R. (eds.). <i>Algae and Human Affairs</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87\u2013117. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Porphyra+as+food%3A+cultivation+and+economic&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pages=87-117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Mumford&rft.aufirst=T.+F.&rft.au=Miura%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFRound1981\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Round, F. E. (1981). <i>The Ecology of Algae</i>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22583-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22583-0\"><bdi>978-0-521-22583-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Algae&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22583-0&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFSmith1938\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Smith, G. M. (1938). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp\"><i>Cryptogamic Botany</i></a>. Vol. I. New York: McGraw-Hill.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cryptogamic+Botany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=G.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcryptogamicbotan031880mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFAsk1990\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ask, E.I (1990). <i>Cottonii and Spinosum Cultivation Handbook</i>. FMC BioPolymer Corporation.Philippines.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cottonii+and+Spinosum+Cultivation+Handbook&rft.pub=FMC+BioPolymer+Corporation.Philippines&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Ask&rft.aufirst=E.I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regional\">Regional</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=37\" title=\"Edit section: Regional\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Britain_and_Ireland\">Britain and Ireland</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=38\" title=\"Edit section: Britain and Ireland\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFBrodieBurrowsChamberlainChristensen1977\u20132003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M.; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R. L.; Hommersand, Max H.; Irvine, Linda M.; Maggs, Christine A. (1977\u20132003). <i>Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)</i>. London / Andover: British Museum of Natural History, HMSO / Intercept. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-00781-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-565-00781-2\"><bdi>978-0-565-00781-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+British+Isles%3A+A+Collaborative+Project+of+the+British+Phycological+Society+and+the+British+Museum+%28Natural+History%29&rft.place=London+%2F+Andover&rft.pub=British+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+HMSO+%2F+Intercept&rft.date=1977%2F2003&rft.isbn=978-0-565-00781-2&rft.aulast=Brodie&rft.aufirst=Juliet&rft.au=Burrows%2C+Elsie+M.&rft.au=Chamberlain%2C+Yvonne+M.&rft.au=Christensen%2C+Tyge&rft.au=Dixon%2C+Peter+Stanley&rft.au=Fletcher%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Hommersand%2C+Max+H.&rft.au=Irvine%2C+Linda+M.&rft.au=Maggs%2C+Christine+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFCullinane1973\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cullinane, John P. (1973). <i>Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland</i>. Cork: Cork University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phycology+of+the+South+Coast+of+Ireland&rft.place=Cork&rft.pub=Cork+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Cullinane&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFHardyAspinall1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hardy, F. G.; Aspinall, R. J. (1988). <i>An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham</i>. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9509680-5-6\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-9509680-5-6\"><bdi>978-0-9509680-5-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+of+the+Seaweeds+of+Northumberland+and+Durham&rft.place=The+Hancock+Museum%2C+University+Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Northumberland+Biological+Records+Centre&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-9509680-5-6&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=F.+G.&rft.au=Aspinall%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFHardyGuiryArnold2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hardy, F. G.; <a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael D.</a>; Arnold, Henry R. (2006). <i>A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland</i> (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-906166-35-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-3-906166-35-3\"><bdi>978-3-906166-35-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Check-list+and+Atlas+of+the+Seaweeds+of+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=British+Phycological+Society&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-906166-35-3&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=F.+G.&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Henry+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFJohnWhittonBrook2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">John, D. M.; Whitton, B. A.; Brook, J. A. (2002). <i>The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles</i>. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4\"><bdi>978-0-521-77051-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Freshwater+Algal+Flora+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Cambridge+%2F+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77051-4&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rft.au=Whitton%2C+B.+A.&rft.au=Brook%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFKnightParke1931\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W. (1931). <i>Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man</i>. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. Vol. XXX. Liverpool: University Press.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manx+Algae%3A+An+Algal+Survey+of+the+South+End+of+the+Isle+of+Man&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.series=Liverpool+Marine+Biology+Committee+Memoirs+on+Typical+British+Marine+Plants+%26+Animals&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Margery&rft.au=Parke%2C+Mary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFMorton1994\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Morton, Osborne (1994). <i>Marine Algae of Northern Ireland</i>. Belfast: Ulster Museum. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900761-28-7\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-900761-28-7\"><bdi>978-0-900761-28-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+Northern+Ireland&rft.place=Belfast&rft.pub=Ulster+Museum&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-900761-28-7&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Osborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFMorton2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). \"The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland\". <i>Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society</i>. <b>27</b>: 3\u2013164.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Irish+Biogeographical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Marine+Macroalgae+of+County+Donegal%2C+Ireland&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=3-164&rft.date=2003-12-01&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Osborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=39\" title=\"Edit section: Australia\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFHuisman2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Huisman, J. M. (2000). <i>Marine Plants of Australia</i>. University of Western Australia Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876268-33-6\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-1-876268-33-6\"><bdi>978-1-876268-33-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Plants+of+Australia&rft.pub=University+of+Western+Australia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-876268-33-6&rft.aulast=Huisman&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"New_Zealand\">New Zealand</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=40\" title=\"Edit section: New Zealand\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFChapmanLindauerAikenDromgoole1970\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M.; Dromgoole, F. I. (1970) [1900, 1956, 1961, 1969]. <i>The Marine algae of New Zealand</i>. London / Lehre, Germany: Linnean Society of London / Cramer.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marine+algae+of+New+Zealand&rft.place=London+%2F+Lehre%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Linnean+Society+of+London+%2F+Cramer&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Valentine+Jackson&rft.au=Lindauer%2C+VW&rft.au=Aiken%2C+M.&rft.au=Dromgoole%2C+F.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Europe\">Europe</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=41\" title=\"Edit section: Europe\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFCabioc'hFloc'hLe_ToquinBoudouresque1992\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-Fran\u00e7ois; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992). <i>Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e</i> (in French). Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestl\u00e9. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-603-00848-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-2-603-00848-5\"><bdi>978-2-603-00848-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+des+algues+des+mers+d%27Europe%3A+Manche%2FAtlantique-M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e&rft.place=Lausanne%2C+Suisse&rft.pub=Delachaux+et+Niestl%C3%A9&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-2-603-00848-5&rft.aulast=Cabioc%27h&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rft.au=Floc%27h%2C+Jean-Yves&rft.au=Le+Toquin%2C+Alain&rft.au=Boudouresque%2C+Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Meinesz%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Verlaque%2C+Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFGayral1966\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Gayral, Paulette (1966). <i>Les Algues de c\u00f4tes fran\u00e7aises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'\u00e9cologie, la biologie et la syst\u00e9matique des algues marines</i> (in French). Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Algues+de+c%C3%B4tes+fran%C3%A7aises+%28manche+et+atlantique%29%2C+notions+fondamentales+sur+l%27%C3%A9cologie%2C+la+biologie+et+la+syst%C3%A9matique+des+algues+marines&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Doin%2C+Deren+et+Cie&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Gayral&rft.aufirst=Paulette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFGuiryBlunden1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael. D.</a>; Blunden, G. (1991). <i>Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92947-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92947-5\"><bdi>978-0-471-92947-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweed+Resources+in+Europe%3A+Uses+and+Potential&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-471-92947-5&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael.+D.&rft.au=Blunden%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFM\u00edguez_Rodr\u00edguez1998\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">M\u00edguez Rodr\u00edguez, Lu\u00eds (1998). <i>Algas mari\u00f1as de Galicia: Biolox\u00eda, gastronom\u00eda, industria</i> (in Galician). Vigo: Edici\u00f3ns Xerais de Galicia. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8302-263-4\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-84-8302-263-4\"><bdi>978-84-8302-263-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algas+mari%C3%B1as+de+Galicia%3A+Biolox%C3%ADa%2C+gastronom%C3%ADa%2C+industria&rft.place=Vigo&rft.pub=Edici%C3%B3ns+Xerais+de+Galicia&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-84-8302-263-4&rft.aulast=M%C3%ADguez+Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.aufirst=Lu%C3%ADs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFOtero2002\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Otero, J. (2002). <i>Gu\u00eda das macroalgas de Galicia</i> (in Galician). A Coru\u00f1a: Ba\u00eda Edici\u00f3ns. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-89803-22-0\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-84-89803-22-0\"><bdi>978-84-89803-22-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gu%C3%ADa+das+macroalgas+de+Galicia&rft.place=A+Coru%C3%B1a&rft.pub=Ba%C3%ADa+Edici%C3%B3ns&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-84-89803-22-0&rft.aulast=Otero&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFB\u00e1rbaraCremades1993\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">B\u00e1rbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993). <i>Gu\u00eda de las algas del litoral gallego</i> (in Spanish). A Coru\u00f1a: Concello da Coru\u00f1a \u2013 Casa das Ciencias.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gu%C3%ADa+de+las+algas+del+litoral+gallego&rft.place=A+Coru%C3%B1a&rft.pub=Concello+da+Coru%C3%B1a+%E2%80%93+Casa+das+Ciencias&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=B%C3%A1rbara&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Cremades%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Arctic\">Arctic</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=42\" title=\"Edit section: Arctic\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFKjellman1883\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). <i>The algae of the Arctic Sea: A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora</i>. Vol. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp. 1\u2013350.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+algae+of+the+Arctic+Sea%3A+A+survey+of+the+species%2C+together+with+an+exposition+of+the+general+characters+and+the+development+of+the+flora&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pages=1-350&rft.pub=Kungl.+Svenska+vetenskapsakademiens+handlingar&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Kjellman&rft.aufirst=Frans+Reinhold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Greenland\">Greenland</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=43\" title=\"Edit section: Greenland\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFLund1959\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lund, S\u00f8ren Jensen (1959). <i>The Marine Algae of East Greenland</i>. K\u00f6venhavn: C.A. Reitzel. 9584734.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marine+Algae+of+East+Greenland&rft.place=K%C3%B6venhavn&rft.pub=C.A.+Reitzel&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren+Jensen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Faroe_Islands\">Faroe Islands</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=44\" title=\"Edit section: Faroe Islands\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFB\u00f8rgesen1970\" class=\"citation book cs1\">B\u00f8rgesen, Frederik (1970) [1903]. \"Marine Algae\". In Warming, Eugene (ed.). <i>Botany of the Far\u00f6es Based Upon Danish Investigations, Part II</i>. Copenhagen: Det nordiske Forlag. pp. 339\u2013532.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marine+Algae&rft.btitle=Botany+of+the+Far%C3%B6es+Based+Upon+Danish+Investigations%2C+Part+II&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=339-532&rft.pub=Det+nordiske+Forlag&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=B%C3%B8rgesen&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span>.</li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Canary_Islands\">Canary Islands</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=45\" title=\"Edit section: Canary Islands\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFB\u00f8rgesen1936\" class=\"citation book cs1\">B\u00f8rgesen, Frederik (1936) [1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930]. <i>Marine Algae from the Canary Islands</i>. Copenhagen: Bianco Lunos.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+from+the+Canary+Islands&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pub=Bianco+Lunos&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=B%C3%B8rgesen&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Morocco\">Morocco</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=46\" title=\"Edit section: Morocco\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFGayral1958\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Gayral, Paulette (1958). <i>Algues de la c\u00f4te atlantique marocaine</i> (in French). Casablanca: Rabat [Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc].</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algues+de+la+c%C3%B4te+atlantique+marocaine&rft.place=Casablanca&rft.pub=Rabat+%5BSoci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+sciences+naturelles+et+physiques+du+Maroc%5D&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Gayral&rft.aufirst=Paulette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"South_Africa\">South Africa</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=47\" title=\"Edit section: South Africa\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFStegengaBoltonAnderson1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J. J.; Anderson, R. J. (1997). <i>Seaweeds of the South African West Coast</i>. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7992-1793-3\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-7992-1793-3\"><bdi>978-0-7992-1793-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+South+African+West+Coast&rft.pub=Bolus+Herbarium%2C+University+of+Cape+Town&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7992-1793-3&rft.aulast=Stegenga&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Bolton%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"North_America\">North America</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=48\" title=\"Edit section: North America\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h4>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFAbbottHollenberg1976\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Abbott, I. A.; Hollenberg, G. J. (1976). <i>Marine Algae of California</i>. California: Stanford University Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0867-8\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0867-8\"><bdi>978-0-8047-0867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+California&rft.place=California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0867-8&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=I.+A.&rft.au=Hollenberg%2C+G.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFGreeson1982\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree\"><i>An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States</i></a>. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+annotated+key+to+the+identification+of+commonly+occurring+and+dominant+genera+of+Algae+observed+in+the+Phytoplankton+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=US+Department+of+the+Interior%2C+Geological+Survey&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Greeson&rft.aufirst=Phillip+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannotatedkeytoid00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFTaylor1969\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Taylor, William Randolph (1969) [1937, 1957, 1962]. <i>Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-04904-2\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-472-04904-2\"><bdi>978-0-472-04904-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+the+Northeastern+Coast+of+North+America&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-472-04904-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=William+Randolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFWehrSheath2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wehr, J. D.; Sheath, R. G. (2003). <i>Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification</i>. Academic Press. <a href=\"/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\">ISBN</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-741550-5\" title=\"Special:BookSources/978-0-12-741550-5\"><bdi>978-0-12-741550-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freshwater+Algae+of+North+America%3A+Ecology+and+Classification&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-741550-5&rft.aulast=Wehr&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Sheath%2C+R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li></ul>\n</div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links</span><span class=\"mw-editsection\"><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">[</span><a href=\"/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=49\" title=\"Edit section: External links\">edit</a><span class=\"mw-editsection-bracket\">]</span></span></h2>\n</style><div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"></style>\n<div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style=\"font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\"><a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Algae\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Algae\">Algae</a></span>.</div></div>\n</div>\n<div class=\"side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox\"><div class=\"side-box-flex\">\n<div class=\"side-box-image\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"34\" height=\"40\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"941\" data-file-height=\"1103\" /></div>\n<div class=\"side-box-text plainlist\"><a href=\"/wiki/Wikispecies\" title=\"Wikispecies\">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href=\"https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikispecies:Algae\">Algae</a></b></i>.</div></div>\n</div>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"CITEREFGuiryGuiry\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry\" title=\"Michael D. Guiry\">Guiry, Michael</a>; Guiry, Wendy. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algaebase.org\">\"AlgaeBase\"</a>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AlgaeBase&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Wendy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algaebase.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span> \u2013 a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts</li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae&event=display&Submit=Go&start=1\">\"Algae \u2013 Cell Centered Database\"</a>. <i>CCDb.UCSD.edu</i>. San Diego: University of California.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CCDb.UCSD.edu&rft.atitle=Algae+%E2%80%93+Cell+Centered+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccdb.ucsd.edu%2Fsand%2Fmain%3Fstype%3Dlite%26keyword%3Dalgae%26event%3Ddisplay%26Submit%3DGo%26start%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081201013721/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/\">\"Algae Research\"</a>. National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/\">the original</a> on 1 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+Research&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+Department+of+Botany&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Fprojects%2Falgae%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFAndersonKeaferKleindinstShaughnessy2007\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Anderson, Don; Keafer, Bruce; Kleindinst, Judy; Shaughnessy, Katie; Joyce, Katherine; Fino, Danielle; Shepherd, Adam (2007). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779\">\"Harmful Algae\"</a>. US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779\">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harmful+Algae&rft.pub=US+National+Office+for+Harmful+Algal+Blooms&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.au=Keafer%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Kleindinst%2C+Judy&rft.au=Shaughnessy%2C+Katie&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Katherine&rft.au=Fino%2C+Danielle&rft.au=Shepherd%2C+Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoi.edu%2Fredtide%2Fpage.do%3Fpid%3D14779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081230140015/http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2\">\"Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)\"</a>. Department of Environment / Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2\">the original</a> on 30 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australian+Freshwater+Algae+%28AFA%29&rft.pub=Department+of+Environment+%2F+Climate+Change+NSW+Botanic+Gardens+Trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au%2Fscience%2Fhot_science_topics%2Faustralian_freshwater_algae2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://diatom.ansp.org/\">\"Freshwater Algae Research\"</a>. Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research. 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freshwater+Algae+Research&rft.pub=Phycology+Section%2C+Patrick+Center+for+Environmental+Research&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiatom.ansp.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090125102348/http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm\">\"Monterey Bay Flora\"</a>. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). 1996\u20132008. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm\">the original</a> on 25 January 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Monterey+Bay+Flora&rft.pub=Monterey+Bay+Aquarium+Research+Institute+%28MBARI%29&rft.date=1996%2F2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbari.org%2Fstaff%2Fconn%2Fbotany%2Fflora%2Fmflora.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite id=\"CITEREFSilva1997\u20132004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Silva, Paul (1997\u20132004). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html\">\"Index Nominum Algarum (INA)\"</a>. Berkeley: University Herbarium, University of California. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20081223172950/http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html\">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Index+Nominum+Algarum+%28INA%29&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+Herbarium%2C+University+of+California&rft.date=1997%2F2004&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fucjeps.berkeley.edu%2FINA.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=52\">\"Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts\"</a>. <i>TolWeb.org</i>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TolWeb.org&rft.atitle=Algae%3A+Protists+with+Chloroplasts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftolweb.org%2Fnotes%2F%3Fnote_id%3D52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.algae.wur.nl/uk/\">\"Research on microalgae\"</a>. <i>Algae.WUR.nl</i>. Wageningen UR. 2009. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20090424044729/http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/\">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Algae.WUR.nl&rft.atitle=Research+on+microalgae&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algae.wur.nl%2Fuk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20121101204924/http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/algae/index.html\">\"Algae glossary\"</a>. Australian Biological Resources Study. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/algae/index.html\">the original</a> on 1 November 2012 – via Environment.gov.au.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algae+glossary&rft.pub=Australian+Biological+Resources+Study&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenvironment.gov.au%2Fbiodiversity%2Fabrs%2Fonline-resources%2Fglossaries%2Falgae%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/algaevision/about-algae/index.html\">\"About Algae\"</a>. <i>NMH.ac.uk</i>. Natural History Museum, United Kingdom.</cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NMH.ac.uk&rft.atitle=About+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fresearch-curation%2Fscientific-resources%2Fbiodiversity%2Fuk-biodiversity%2Falgaevision%2Fabout-algae%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae\" class=\"Z3988\"></span></li>\n<li><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.enalgae.eu\">EnAlgae</a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20140904213844/http://www.enalgae.eu/\">Archived</a> 4 September 2014 at the <a href=\"/wiki/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></style></style></style></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Botany\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;\"></style><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Botany\" title=\"Template:Botany\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Botany\" title=\"Template talk:Botany\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Botany&action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Botany\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Botany\" title=\"Botany\">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;\"><div id=\"*_History_*_Outline\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/History_of_botany\" title=\"History of botany\">History</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Outline_of_botany\" title=\"Outline of botany\">Outline</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Branches_of_botany\" title=\"Branches of botany\">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeobotany\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Archaeobotany\">Archaeobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Astrobotany\" title=\"Astrobotany\">Astrobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bryology\" title=\"Bryology\">Bryology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dendrology\" title=\"Dendrology\">Dendrology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ethnobotany\" title=\"Ethnobotany\">Ethnobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Paleobotany\" title=\"Paleobotany\">Paleobotany</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycology\" title=\"Phycology\">Phycology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phytochemistry\" title=\"Phytochemistry\">Phytochemistry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phytogeography\" title=\"Phytogeography\">Phytogeography</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting\" title=\"Geobotanical prospecting\">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_anatomy\" title=\"Plant anatomy\">Plant anatomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_ecology\" title=\"Plant ecology\">Plant ecology</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_pathology\" title=\"Plant pathology\">Plant pathology</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant\" title=\"Plant\">Plant</a> groups</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Algae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bryophyte\" title=\"Bryophyte\">Bryophyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Non-vascular_plant\" title=\"Non-vascular plant\">Non-vascular plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_plant\" title=\"Vascular plant\">Vascular plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Spermatophyte\" title=\"Spermatophyte\">Spermatophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pteridophyte\" title=\"Pteridophyte\">Pteridophyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gymnosperm\" title=\"Gymnosperm\">Gymnosperm</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flowering_plant\" title=\"Flowering plant\">Angiosperm</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_anatomy\" title=\"Plant anatomy\">Plant anatomy</a> <div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_morphology\" title=\"Plant morphology\">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class=\"nobold\">(<a href=\"/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology\" title=\"Glossary of plant morphology\">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_cell\" title=\"Plant cell\">Plant cells</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_wall\" title=\"Cell wall\">Cell wall</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phragmoplast\" title=\"Phragmoplast\">Phragmoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plastid\" title=\"Plastid\">Plastid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmodesma\" title=\"Plasmodesma\">Plasmodesma</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vacuole\" title=\"Vacuole\">Vacuole</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Tissue_(biology)\" title=\"Tissue (biology)\">Tissues</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cork_cambium\" title=\"Cork cambium\">Cork</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ground_tissue\" title=\"Ground tissue\">Ground tissue</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll\" title=\"Leaf\">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Meristem\" title=\"Meristem\">Meristem</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Storage_organ\" title=\"Storage organ\">Storage organs</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_tissue\" title=\"Vascular tissue\">Vascular tissue</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Vascular_bundle\" title=\"Vascular bundle\">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Wood\" title=\"Wood\">Wood</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\">Vegetative</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bulb\" title=\"Bulb\">Bulb</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Root\" title=\"Root\">Root</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizoid\" title=\"Rhizoid\">Rhizoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizome\" title=\"Rhizome\">Rhizome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Shoot\" title=\"Shoot\">Shoot</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bud\" title=\"Bud\">Bud</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Leaf\" title=\"Leaf\">Leaf</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cataphyll\" title=\"Cataphyll\">Cataphyll</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Petiole_(botany)\" title=\"Petiole (botany)\">Petiole</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sessility_(botany)\" title=\"Sessility (botany)\">Sessility</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_stem\" title=\"Plant stem\">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology\" title=\"Plant reproductive morphology\">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Archegonium\" title=\"Archegonium\">Archegonium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Antheridium\" title=\"Antheridium\">Antheridium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stamen\" title=\"Stamen\">Androecium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollen\" title=\"Pollen\">Pollen</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stamen\" title=\"Stamen\">Stamen</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Staminode\" title=\"Staminode\">Staminode</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)\" title=\"Tapetum (botany)\">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flower\" title=\"Flower\">Flower</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)\" title=\"Aestivation (botany)\">Aestivation</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development\" title=\"ABC model of flower development\">Flower development</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floral_diagram\" title=\"Floral diagram\">Floral diagram</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floral_formula\" title=\"Floral formula\">Floral formula</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floral_symmetry\" title=\"Floral symmetry\">Floral symmetry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Whorl_(botany)\" title=\"Whorl (botany)\">Whorl</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fruit\" title=\"Fruit\">Fruit</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Fruit_anatomy\" title=\"Fruit anatomy\">Anatomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Berry_(botany)\" title=\"Berry (botany)\">Berry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)\" title=\"Capsule (fruit)\">Capsule</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nut_(fruit)\" title=\"Nut (fruit)\">Nut</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pyrena\" title=\"Pyrena\">Pyrena</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Seed\" title=\"Seed\">Seed</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Seed_dispersal\" title=\"Seed dispersal\">Dispersal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Endosperm\" title=\"Endosperm\">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gametophyte\" title=\"Gametophyte\">Gametophyte</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Column_(botany)\" title=\"Column (botany)\">Gynandrium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gynoecium\" title=\"Gynoecium\">Gynoecium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Ovary_(botany)\" title=\"Ovary (botany)\">Ovary</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Locule\" title=\"Locule\">Locule</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Ovule\" title=\"Ovule\">Ovule</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stigma_(botany)\" title=\"Stigma (botany)\">Stigma</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Hypanthium\" title=\"Hypanthium\">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Inflorescence\" title=\"Inflorescence\">Inflorescence</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Bract\" title=\"Bract\">Bract</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)\" title=\"Pedicel (botany)\">Pedicellate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Raceme\" title=\"Raceme\">Raceme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Umbel\" title=\"Umbel\">Umbel</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Perianth\" title=\"Perianth\">Perianth</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Tepal\" title=\"Tepal\">Tepal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Petal\" title=\"Petal\">Petal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sepal\" title=\"Sepal\">Sepal</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos\" title=\"Embryo\">Plant embryo</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)\" title=\"Receptacle (botany)\">Receptacle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporophyll\" title=\"Sporophyll\">Sporophyll</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporophyte\" title=\"Sporophyte\">Sporophyte</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #D4EED4;;width:1%\">Surface structures</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_cuticle\" title=\"Plant cuticle\">Cuticle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Epicuticular_wax\" title=\"Epicuticular wax\">Epicuticular wax</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)\" title=\"Epidermis (botany)\">Epidermis</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nectar\" title=\"Nectar\">Nectar</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Stoma\" title=\"Stoma\">Stoma</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles\" title=\"Thorns, spines, and prickles\">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Trichome\" title=\"Trichome\">Trichome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_physiology\" title=\"Plant physiology\">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Aleurone\" title=\"Aleurone\">Aleurone</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apical_dominance\" title=\"Apical dominance\">Apical dominance</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Bulk_movement\" title=\"Bulk movement\">Bulk flow</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cellulose\" title=\"Cellulose\">Cellulose</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_nutrition\" title=\"Plant nutrition\">Nutrition</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Photosynthesis\" title=\"Photosynthesis\">Photosynthesis</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Chlorophyll\" title=\"Chlorophyll\">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phytomelanin\" title=\"Phytomelanin\">Phytomelanin</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_hormone\" title=\"Plant hormone\">Plant hormones</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants\" title=\"Respiratory system\">Respiration</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants\" title=\"Gas exchange\">Gas Exchange</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cellular_Respiration\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cellular Respiration\">Cellular Respiration</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sap\" title=\"Sap\">Sap</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Starch\" title=\"Starch\">Starch</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sugar\" title=\"Sugar\">Sugar</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Transpiration\" title=\"Transpiration\">Transpiration</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Turgor_pressure\" title=\"Turgor pressure\">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure\" title=\"Habit (biology)\">Habit</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cushion_plant\" title=\"Cushion plant\">Cushion plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Rosette_(botany)\" title=\"Rosette (botany)\">Rosettes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Shrub\" title=\"Shrub\">Shrubs</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Prostrate_shrub\" title=\"Prostrate shrub\">Prostrate shrubs</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Subshrub\" title=\"Subshrub\">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Succulent_plant\" title=\"Succulent plant\">Succulent plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Tree\" title=\"Tree\">Trees</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Vine\" title=\"Vine\">Vines</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Liana\" title=\"Liana\">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Herbaceous_plant\" title=\"Herbaceous plant\">Herbaceous plants</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Secondary_growth\" title=\"Secondary growth\">Secondary growth</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Woody_plant\" title=\"Woody plant\">Woody plants</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_reproduction\" title=\"Plant reproduction\">Reproduction</a> <div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_evolution\" title=\"Plant evolution\">Evolution</a></li><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_ecology\" title=\"Plant ecology\">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Alternation_of_generations\" title=\"Alternation of generations\">Alternation of generations</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Double_fertilization\" title=\"Double fertilization\">Double fertilization</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology\" title=\"Plant evolutionary developmental biology\">Evolutionary development</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants\" title=\"Evolutionary history of plants\">Evolutionary history</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution\" title=\"Timeline of plant evolution\">timeline</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flora\" title=\"Flora\">Flora</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Germination\" title=\"Germination\">Germination</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollination\" title=\"Pollination\">Pollination</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Artificial_pollination\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Artificial pollination\">Artificial</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollinator\" title=\"Pollinator\">Pollinators</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pollen_tube\" title=\"Pollen tube\">Pollen tube</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Self-pollination\" title=\"Self-pollination\">Self</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporangium\" title=\"Sporangium\">Sporangium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microsporangia\" title=\"Microsporangia\">Microsporangia</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microspore\" title=\"Microspore\">Microspore</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sporangium\" title=\"Sporangium\">Megasporangium</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Megaspore\" title=\"Megaspore\">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Spore\" title=\"Spore\">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Plant_taxonomy\" title=\"Plant taxonomy\">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)\" title=\"Taxonomy (biology)\">Biological classification</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature\" title=\"Botanical nomenclature\">Botanical nomenclature</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_name\" title=\"Botanical name\">Botanical name</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Correct_name\" title=\"Correct name\">Correct name</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)\" title=\"Author citation (botany)\">Author citation</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants\" title=\"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants\">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants\" title=\"International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants\">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy\" title=\"Cultivated plant taxonomy\">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy\" title=\"Citrus taxonomy\">Citrus taxonomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultigen\" title=\"Cultigen\">Cultigen</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultivar\" title=\"Cultivar\">Cultivar</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cultivar_group\" title=\"Cultivar group\">Group</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)\" title=\"Grex (horticulture)\">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics\" title=\"History of plant systematics\">History of plant systematics</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Herbarium\" title=\"Herbarium\">Herbarium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy\" title=\"International Association for Plant Taxonomy\">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy\" title=\"List of systems of plant taxonomy\">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Taxonomic_rank\" title=\"Taxonomic rank\">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\">Practice</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Agronomy\" title=\"Agronomy\">Agronomy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Floriculture\" title=\"Floriculture\">Floriculture</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Forestry\" title=\"Forestry\">Forestry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Horticulture\" title=\"Horticulture\">Horticulture</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%\"><div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms\" title=\"Glossary of botanical terms\">Botanical terms</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/List_of_botanists\" title=\"List of botanists\">Botanists</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)\" title=\"List of botanists by author abbreviation (W\u2013Z)\">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Botanical_expedition\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Botanical expedition\">Botanical expedition</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"navbox-abovebelow\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background: #C3EEC3;;font-weight:bold;\"><div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg\" class=\"image\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/16px-Leaf_1_web.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"12\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/24px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"768\" /></a> <a href=\"/wiki/Portal:Plants\" title=\"Portal:Plants\">Portal</a></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"WikiProject\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"100\" data-file-height=\"100\" /> <a href=\"/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Plants\" title=\"Wikipedia:WikiProject Plants\">WikiProject</a></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Category\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"180\" data-file-height=\"185\" /> <a href=\"/wiki/Category:Botany\" title=\"Category:Botany\">Category</a></li>\n<li><img alt=\"\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Commons page\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"1024\" data-file-height=\"1376\" /> <a href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Botany\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Botany\">Commons</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox\" aria-labelledby=\"Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini\"><ul><li class=\"nv-view\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template:Protist_structures\" title=\"Template:Protist structures\"><abbr title=\"View this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">v</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-talk\"><a href=\"/wiki/Template_talk:Protist_structures\" title=\"Template talk:Protist structures\"><abbr title=\"Discuss this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">t</abbr></a></li><li class=\"nv-edit\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Protist_structures&action=edit\"><abbr title=\"Edit this template\" style=\";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;\">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id=\"Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\">Microbiology</a>: <a href=\"/wiki/Protistology\" title=\"Protistology\">Protistology</a>: <a href=\"/wiki/Protist\" title=\"Protist\">Protists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Former<br />classifications</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Protozoa\" title=\"Protozoa\">Protozoa</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">Mastigophora/Flagellates</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Amoeba\" title=\"Amoeba\">Sarcodina/Amoeboids</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Testate_amoebae\" title=\"Testate amoebae\">Testate</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heliozoa\" title=\"Heliozoa\">Heliozoa</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Infusoria\" title=\"Infusoria\">Infusoria</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Ciliate\" title=\"Ciliate\">Ciliates</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexa#Taxonomy\" title=\"Apicomplexa\">Sporozoa</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Algae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptogam\" title=\"Cryptogam\">Cryptogams</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Thallophyte\" title=\"Thallophyte\">Thallophytes</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fungus#Fungus-like_organisms\" title=\"Fungus\">Fungus-like organisms</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Slime_mold\" title=\"Slime mold\">Slime molds</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Nomenclature_codes#Ambiregnal_protists\" title=\"Nomenclature codes\">Ambiregnal protists</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Morphology</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Archaeplastida\" title=\"Archaeplastida\">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Viridiplantae\" title=\"Viridiplantae\">Chloroplastida</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li>\"<a href=\"/wiki/Green_algae\" title=\"Green algae\">green algae</a>\": <a href=\"/wiki/Phycoplast\" title=\"Phycoplast\">Phycoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phragmoplast\" title=\"Phragmoplast\">Phragmoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellum#Types\" title=\"Flagellum\">Flagellar apparatus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Glaucophyte\" title=\"Glaucophyte\">Glaucophytes</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cyanelle\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Cyanelle\">Cyanelles</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycobilisome\" title=\"Phycobilisome\">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:lightgreen;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Red_algae\" title=\"Red algae\">Red algae</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Pit_connection\" title=\"Pit connection\">Pit connection</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Phycobilisome\" title=\"Phycobilisome\">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Hacrobia\" title=\"Hacrobia\">Hacrobia</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Cryptomonad\" title=\"Cryptomonad\">Cryptophyta</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mastigoneme\" title=\"Mastigoneme\">Mastigoneme</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Periplast\" title=\"Periplast\">Periplast</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyte\" title=\"Haptophyte\">Haptophyte</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Coccolith\" title=\"Coccolith\">Coccolith</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Haptophyte#Characteristics\" title=\"Haptophyte\">Haptonema</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokont\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterokont\">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\">General:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Mastigoneme\" title=\"Mastigoneme\">Mastigoneme</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Diatom\" title=\"Diatom\">Diatoms</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Frustule\" title=\"Frustule\">Frustule</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Brown_algae\" title=\"Brown algae\">Brown algae</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Lamina_(algae)\" title=\"Lamina (algae)\">Lamina</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pneumatocyst\" title=\"Pneumatocyst\">Pneumatocyst</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Alveolate\" title=\"Alveolate\">Alveolata</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\">General:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Alveolate#Characteristics\" title=\"Alveolate\"> Alveoli</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Trichocyst\" title=\"Trichocyst\">Trichocyst</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Dinoflagellate\" title=\"Dinoflagellate\">Dinoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinokaryon\" title=\"Dinokaryon\">Dinokaryon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dinocyst\" title=\"Dinocyst\">Dinocyst</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Theca\" title=\"Theca\">Theca</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Ciliate\" title=\"Ciliate\">Ciliates</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cilium\" title=\"Cilium\">Cilium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cirrus_(biology)\" title=\"Cirrus (biology)\">Cirrus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Macronucleus\" title=\"Macronucleus\">Macronucleus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Micronucleus\" title=\"Micronucleus\">Micronucleus</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Apicomplexa\" title=\"Apicomplexa\">Apicomplexans</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Rhoptry\" title=\"Rhoptry\">Rhoptry</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Apicoplast\" title=\"Apicoplast\">Apicoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Microneme\" title=\"Microneme\">Microneme</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);\"><a href=\"/wiki/Rhizaria\" title=\"Rhizaria\">Rhizaria</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Phytomyxea\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Phytomyxea\" title=\"Phytomyxea\">Phytomyxea</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Nuclear_division\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Nuclear division\">Cruciform division</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#F0E68C;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Excavata\" title=\"Excavata\">Excavate</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#F0E68C;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Kinetoplastida\" title=\"Kinetoplastida\">Kinetoplastids</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Kinetoplast\" title=\"Kinetoplast\">Kinetoplast</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Glycosome\" title=\"Glycosome\">Glycosome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#F0E68C;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Euglenid\" title=\"Euglenid\">Euglenoidea</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Periplast\" title=\"Periplast\">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;\"><a href=\"/wiki/Amoebozoa\" title=\"Amoebozoa\">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Dictyostelids:\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Dictyostelid\" title=\"Dictyostelid\">Dictyostelids</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Macrocyst\" title=\"Macrocyst\">Macrocyst</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Sorocarp\" title=\"Sorocarp\">Sorocarp</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><a href=\"/wiki/Opisthokont\" title=\"Opisthokont\">Opisthokonta</a></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th id=\"Choanoflagellates:\" scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%;background:#D3D3A4;\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Choanoflagellate\" title=\"Choanoflagellate\">Choanoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microvillus\" title=\"Microvillus\">Collar of microvilli</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">General</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\"></div><table class=\"nowraplinks navbox-subgroup\" style=\"border-spacing:0\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationsstufe\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"de:Organisationsstufe\">Levels of<br />organization</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Unicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Unicellular\">Unicellular</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellate\" title=\"Flagellate\">Monadoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Amoeboid\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Amoeboid\">Amoeboid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coccoid_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig\" title=\"Coccoid (disambiguation)\">Coccoid</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Colony_(biology)\" title=\"Colony (biology)\">Colonial</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Sensu_stricto\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sensu stricto\">s.s.</a>\n<ul><li>Colonial flagellated</li>\n<li>Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid</li>\n<li>Sarcinoid</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coenobium_(morphology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Coenobium (morphology)\">Coenobial</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>Filamentous/trichal/<a href=\"/wiki/Hyphal\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hyphal\">hyphal</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Parenchymatous\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parenchymatous\">Parenchymatous</a></li>\n<li>Pseudoparenchymatous/plektenchymatic</li>\n<li>Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous</li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Multinucleated\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multinucleated\">Multinucleated</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Syncytial\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Syncytial\">Syncytial</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Coenocytic\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Coenocytic\">Coenocytic</a>\n<ul><li>Siphonous</li>\n<li>Siphonocladous</li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Multicellular\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Multicellular\">Multicellular</a> <a href=\"/wiki/Sensu_stricto\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sensu stricto\">s.s.</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Tissue_(biology)\" title=\"Tissue (biology)\">tissular</a>/histonal</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\"><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_wall#Other_cell_coverings\" title=\"Cell wall\">Cell surface<br />structures</a></span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_membrane\" title=\"Cell membrane\">Simple cell membrane</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mucilage\" title=\"Mucilage\">Mucilage</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Scale_(anatomy)\" title=\"Scale (anatomy)\">Scale</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Frustule\" title=\"Frustule\">Frustule</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cell_wall\" title=\"Cell wall\">Cell wall</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Lorica_(biology)\" title=\"Lorica (biology)\">Lorica</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Skeleton\" title=\"Skeleton\">Skeleton</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Test_(biology)\" title=\"Test (biology)\">Test</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Theca\" title=\"Theca\">Theca</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Periplast\" title=\"Periplast\">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Locomotion</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Flagellum\" title=\"Flagellum\">Flagellum</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cilium\" title=\"Cilium\">Cilium</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pseudopodia\" title=\"Pseudopodia\">Pseudopodia</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Gliding_motility\" title=\"Gliding motility\">Gliding motility</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Mitochondria</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Hydrogenosome\" title=\"Hydrogenosome\">Hydrogenosome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitosome\" title=\"Mitosome\">Mitosome</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Nucleus</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Nucleomorph\" title=\"Nucleomorph\">Nucleomorph</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Multinucleate\" title=\"Multinucleate\">Multinucleate cells</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Plasmodium_(life_cycle)\" title=\"Plasmodium (life cycle)\">Plasmodium</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Dikaryon\" title=\"Dikaryon\">Dikaryon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterokaryon\" title=\"Heterokaryon\">Heterokaryon</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mitosis\" title=\"Mitosis\">Mitosis in protists</a>\n<ul><li>Open</li>\n<li>Closed</li>\n<li>Orthomitosis</li>\n<li>Pleuromitosis</li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Meiosis#Occurrence_in_eukaryotic_life_cycles\" title=\"Meiosis\">Meiosis in protists</a>\n<ul><li>Gametic</li>\n<li>Zygotic</li>\n<li>Sporic</li></ul></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\"><span class=\"nobold\">Other</span></th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbial_cyst\" title=\"Microbial cyst\">Cyst</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Cytostome\" title=\"Cytostome\">Cytostome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fimbria (bacteriology)\">Fimbriae</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Extrusome\" title=\"Extrusome\">Extrusome</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Contractile_vacuole\" title=\"Contractile vacuole\">Contractile vacuole</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus\" title=\"Eyespot apparatus\">Eyespot apparatus</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Pyrenoid\" title=\"Pyrenoid\">Pyrenoid</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Axostyle\" title=\"Axostyle\">Axostyle</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mastigont_system\" title=\"Mastigont system\">Mastigont system</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Ecology and<br />physiology</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbial_ecology\" title=\"Microbial ecology\">Microbial ecology</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Microbial_biogeography\" title=\"Microbial biogeography\">Microbial biogeography</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Lourens_Baas_Becking#Baas_Becking_hypothesis\" title=\"Lourens Baas Becking\">Baas-Becking hypothesis</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Developmental_biology\" title=\"Developmental biology\">Development</a>/<a href=\"/wiki/Reproduction\" title=\"Reproduction\">Reproduction</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Biological_life_cycle\" title=\"Biological life cycle\">Life cycles</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Fertilization#Fertilization_in_protists\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Fertilization\">Fertilization</a></li></ul></li>\n<li>Nutrition: <a href=\"/wiki/Autotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Autotrophy\">Autotrophy</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Phototrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phototrophy\">Phototrophy</a></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Heterotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heterotrophy\">Heterotrophy</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Phagotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Phagotrophy\">Phagotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Osmotrophy\" title=\"Osmotrophy\">Osmotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition\" title=\"Saprotrophic nutrition\">Saprotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Parasitism\" title=\"Parasitism\">Parasitism</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"/wiki/Biotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Biotrophy\">Biotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Necrotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Necrotrophy\">Necrotrophy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Mixotrophy\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mixotrophy\">Mixotrophy</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"/wiki/Auxotrophy\" title=\"Auxotrophy\">Auxotrophy</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"></style></div><div role=\"navigation\" class=\"navbox authority-control\" aria-labelledby=\"Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"padding:3px\"><table class=\"nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner\" style=\"border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit\"><tbody><tr><th scope=\"col\" class=\"navbox-title\" colspan=\"2\"><div id=\"Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata\" style=\"font-size:114%;margin:0 4em\"><a href=\"/wiki/Help:Authority_control\" title=\"Help:Authority control\">Authority control</a> <a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers\" title=\"Edit this at Wikidata\"><img alt=\"Edit this at Wikidata\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"10\" height=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: text-top\" class=\"noprint\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x\" data-file-width=\"20\" data-file-height=\"20\" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">National</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Algues\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119530776\">France</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"Algues\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119530776\">BnF data</a></span></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4001173-2\">Germany</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007293935305171\">Israel</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85003405\">United States</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000050628&P_CON_LNG=ENG\">Latvia</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571433\">Japan</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"uid\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted\" title=\"\u0159asy\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116889&CON_LNG=ENG\">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th scope=\"row\" class=\"navbox-group\" style=\"width:1%\">Other</th><td class=\"navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even\" style=\"width:100%;padding:0\"><div style=\"padding:0 0.25em\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"uid\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=27344\">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>"
}